Recent Advances on the Chemical Compositions, Biological Activities, and Applications of Ziziphi Spinosae Semen: From Traditional Treasures to Modern Medical Stars.

Evidence suggests that a person in a high-income country (according to World Bank classification: ), such as, e.g. the USA, makes more than 200 daily decisions about what food to purchase, prepare or consume; which directly relate to the fat content of ingested foods. The most relevant to human health types of fats, include SFA, PUFA and MUFA. Higher intake of SFA increases LDL-cholesterol, a biomarker associated with CVD. Studies indicate that substituting carbohydrates with 1 % of total energy intake from SFA is associated with an increase in LDL-cholesterol by 0·036 mmol/l (95 % CI: 0·030, 0·043). The recommendation to limit the intake of fat has been the cornerstone of dietary guidelines for over 65 years, and recently has been specified to cover most importantly saturated fat. Fats constitute a very heterogeneous group differing in the fatty acid chain length, the number of unsaturated bonds and their configuration (i.e. or ). The effect of SFA consumption on health, especially long-chain fatty acids, remains at the centre of debate, with many observational studies suggesting that the reduction of SFA intake leads to lower risk of CVD or cancer, while other studies do not indicate clear benefits. One of the methodologies used in developing guidelines is Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation. According to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach, understanding people's health-related values and preferences is essential for developing public health and clinical practice guidelines. The people's values and preferences refer to the degrees of subjective satisfaction, distress or desirability that patients or potential patients associate with a particular health outcome. Therefore, the aim of the review was to investigate and synthesise available evidence on values and preferences regarding fats consumption.