Development and pilot evaluation of an AI-based pediatric medication safety virtual simulation program for nursing students: a quasi-experimental study in South Korea.

In many ways, men’s health outcomes are worse than women’s. Worldwide, men have a significantly shorter average life expectancy than women (). Men have a higher prevalence of coronary heart disease () and bladder cancer () than women, and are more likely to die from cardiovascular disease () and alcohol-related deaths (). Men also exhibit more health-risk behaviors and attitudes, including binge drinking (), preferences for processed foods and red meat (; ), and smoking (). Social scripts around masculinity are an influential factor associated with such gender gaps in health behavior and outcomes (; ; ). Correlational evidence has linked three broad aspects of masculinity with men’s health behavior: 1) conformity to masculine norms, 2) endorsement of traditionally masculine traits, and 3) precarious manhood beliefs. Masculine norms are a set of rigid beliefs and socially learned rules about how men should and should not behave, equating ‘real’ manhood with toughness, self-reliance, and risk-taking (). Past research has linked conformity to masculine norms with reduced engagement in health protective behaviors such as wearing sunscreen or eating healthy food (), worse mental health, and reluctance to engage in psychological help-seeking (; ). Previous research has also focused on the endorsement (or belief in the possession) of traditionally masculine or agentic traits (such as independence or self-reliance) as manifestations of traditional notions of masculinity (). In men, endorsement of these agentic traits has been linked to health behaviors such as drug use () and fat intake (). Finally, beliefs in manhood as a precarious social status have been associated with several health risk behaviors (e.g. smoking) and lower life expectancy in men (). Beyond correlational evidence, emerging research has examined the causal pathways that lead masculinity to affect men’s health behavior, highlighting masculinity threat as a key psychological mechanism that leads men to conform to societal expectations of masculinity (, ). Precarious Manhood Theory () identifies manhood, in contrast to womanhood, as a fragile social identity that must be continually proven through outward demonstrations to remain valid. Threats to masculinity that challenge a man’s status and alignment with masculine ideals can therefore prompt compensatory behaviors that serve to re-establish masculine identity, while simultaneously harming men’s health (). While masculinity threat might represent a pathway through which norms affect behavior, these norms are not fixed. When processes of social influence reduce men’s endorsement of traditional masculinity, they tend to exhibit healthier forms of masculine expression, including emotional vulnerability ().