Federated parameter-free DBSCAN clustering and its application in image recognition.

Mental health problems are rising, affecting individuals across the globe and posing challenges to public health systems []. In Denmark, this rise is reflected in increasing numbers of individuals with mental disorder diagnoses, use of psychotropic medications, and prevalence of self-reported mental health problems []. Numerous studies have tried to understand the underlying causes of mental health problems, often focusing on single exposures, with several systematic reviews synthesizing these findings []. However, these studies often fail to capture the complex and interconnected nature of mental health. Recent population-based research has identified a range of potential contributors to increasing mental health problems among adolescents. However, these studies consistently emphasize that these trends are driven by complex, multifaceted changes with no single explanatory factor, and are often limited by a focus on isolated exposures and limited insight into how multiple factors interact and change over time []. To better understand variation in mental health, it is necessary to move beyond studying isolated factors [, ]. Öngür and Paulus recently argued that traditional reductionistic approaches simplify mental health into linear cause-and-effect relationships, neglecting the multifaceted interactions between biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors. The authors suggest that mental health is best understood as complex dynamical systems that evolve through the interplay of multiple influences over time []. Addressing mental health effectively demands a shift towards complex systems approaches, integrating multiple variables and accounting for their dynamic nature. A key aspect of mental health complexity is the timing of exposures and their varying impact over the life course. For example, while social support is a strong protective factor in childhood and adolescence, its influence diminishes in adulthood []. This underscores the importance of examining the temporal dynamics of risk and protective factors over time. In particular, the transition from adolescence to adulthood involves major biological, psychological, and social changes affecting depressive symptoms [].