Mental health outcomes of a peer support programme for prosthesis and orthosis users in Cambodia: An explanatory sequential mixed-methods study.

The rapid development of the digital economy has promoted the integration of information technology into education, positioning digital transformation as a central direction in higher education. In this context, online learning has evolved from a supplementary component of traditional classroom instruction into an independent mode of learning (). The outbreak of COVID-19 further accelerated this transition (). However, compared with the relatively smooth transition of theoretical courses, physical education faces more complex challenges in its shift to online formats. In online physical education, learning engagement is closely tied to students’ self-regulatory capabilities, including motivational maintenance and behavioral control (). The absence of on-site supervision and interactive support means that the learning process is more dependent on individual self-regulation and more influenced by individual differences. As a key variable linking learning processes and outcomes, learning engagement provides a critical perspective for understanding the effectiveness of online physical education. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically examine the mechanisms underlying college students’ engagement in online physical education from a psychological perspective. Learning engagement refers to a positive, persistent, and learning-related psychological state that individuals exhibit during the learning process, and it is typically characterized by three dimensions: vigor, dedication, and absorption (; ). Previous studies have suggested that learning engagement not only reflects the quality of the learning process but also is considered an important factor associated with learning outcomes (). In physical education, learning engagement demonstrates a more pronounced integration of physical and psychological dimensions, encompassing not only behavioral participation but also psychological components such as interest and emotional involvement (). With the development of information technology, physical education courses have gradually expanded into online settings, accompanied by corresponding changes in the manifestation of learning engagement. In measuring online learning engagement, existing studies have increasingly incorporated behavioral data from learning platforms, such as login frequency and video viewing duration, in addition to self-report scales (). However, online learning engagement is essentially a multidimensional construct encompassing behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions, with dynamic interactions among these dimensions (), and therefore relying solely on objective behavioral indicators is insufficient to fully capture learners’ internal psychological engagement. An in-depth examination of the mechanisms underlying engagement in online physical education from a multidimensional perspective is of considerable theoretical and practical significance. According to social cognitive theory, human behavior is shaped by the interaction between external environmental factors and internal cognitive processes, among which self-efficacy, as a core cognitive variable, plays a crucial role in the initiation and maintenance of behavior (). Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ beliefs in their capabilities to perform specific tasks (), and its role has been widely demonstrated across domains such as academic performance, health behaviors, and behavioral regulation. In educational contexts, self-efficacy is often operationalized as academic self-efficacy, defined as learners’ subjective judgments of their ability to accomplish academic tasks (). A substantial body of research indicates a robust positive association between academic self-efficacy and learning engagement. Individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to sustain effort and exhibit greater concentration and persistence, whereas those with low self-efficacy are more prone to avoidance behaviors (). This association has also been observed in international online physical education settings. For example, found that Saudi students’ competence perceptions—a construct closely related to self-efficacy—were significant predictors of academic achievement in online physical education. This relationship may be related to the motivational activation function of self-efficacy, which is associated with individuals’ sense of control over tasks, the use of effective learning strategies, and sustained effort in the face of difficulties (; ). In online learning contexts, self-efficacy exhibits stronger context-dependent characteristics. Research suggests that online learning self-efficacy can be understood in terms of task competence, behavioral regulation, and environmental adaptation (; ), all of which may jointly relate to learners’ engagement in virtual environments. Empirical studies further show that learners with higher self-efficacy demonstrate greater engagement and completion rates in online courses (; ; ), whereas low self-efficacy m