Age-related differences and discrepancies between objective and self-assessed executive functions in youth academy footballers.

Allergies affect over 20% of the global population and are recognised by the WHO as one of the most prevalent chronic diseases. They pose a substantial economic and social burden through healthcare costs, productivity loss, and reduced quality of life. The most common allergies that people develop include eczema, asthma, allergic conjunctivitis, allergic rhinitis, and food allergies (FA). At the cellular level, allergic diseases (AD) arise from type 2 immune responses that engage both innate and adaptive immunity. The process often begins when environmental triggers (allergens) such as food, pollutants, or animal dander compromise epithelial barrier integrity in the skin, airways, or gut, prompting damaged epithelial cells to release alarmins (thymic stromal lymphopoietin, IL-25, and IL-33). These alarmins activate type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and dendritic cells (DCs), effectively linking innate defences to the adaptive immune response. During sensitisation, allergen-loaded DCs prime Th2 lymphocytes in draining lymph nodes. Once activated, Th2 cells produce IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. IL-4 and IL-13 drive -cell class switching towards allergen-specific antibodies, immunoglobulin E (IgE), while IL-5 recruits eosinophils that sustain chronic tissue inflammation. The IgE produced binds to FcϵRI receptors on mast cells and basophils; on subsequent allergen exposure, cross-linking of surface-bound IgE triggers degranulation and the release of histamine, tryptase, leukotrienes, PG, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. ILC2s further reinforce this inflammatory milieu through sustained IL-5 and IL-13 production, contributing to mucus hypersecretion and smooth-muscle contraction independently of antigen-specific immunity. Clinically, these cascades produce symptoms ranging from urticaria, rhinorrhoea, and bronchospasm to life-threatening anaphylaxis, and when type 2 inflammation persists, it can drive structural tissue changes such as subepithelial fibrosis and airway remodelling that underpin chronic conditions including asthma and atopic dermatitis. Diagnosis involves a detailed clinical history, physical examination, and tests, such as skin prick testing or measurement of total and/or allergen-specific serum IgE. Management strategies include allergen avoidance, pharmacotherapy (e.g. antihistamines, nasal corticosteroids, bronchodilators), and immunotherapy. Beyond genetic factors, this increase in allergic cases can be linked to various environmental and lifestyle changes. These include rising levels of air pollution, impacts of climate change, prolonged indoor stays, decreased physical activity, and alterations in dietary patterns. Nowadays, people’s eating habits are characterised by an increasing emphasis on convenience and speed, which frequently leads to greater intake of processed, altered, and modified foods; lower consumption of fruits and vegetables; and excessive amounts of sugar, saturated fat, and junk food. One of the healthiest diets is MD, which is based on traditional cuisines of countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It comprises whole grains, vegetables, beans, fruits, nuts, and seeds. Olive oil, the primary source of fat, is the most vital component of MD. The consumption of moderate amounts of fish, seafood, dairy products, and poultry is also a component of this dietary pattern. In contrast, red meat, sweets, sugary drinks, and butters are rarely consumed. MD offers a range of health benefits, including reducing the risk of CVD and metabolic syndrome, as well as supporting a healthy balance of gut microbiota. It helps individuals maintain healthy levels of glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol. Recent research also indicates that MD may be beneficial for individuals with allergies. This could be because MD contains high levels of antioxidants (vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids) and anti-inflammatory substances, including polyphenols (e.g. oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol from olive oil, flavonoids from fruits and vegetables), omega-3 PUFA (EPA, DHA from fish), carotenoids, and dietary fibre, all of which have documented anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties that promote immune function. While AD represent a significant burden in high-income countries, they are increasingly prevalent in low- and middle-income regions where urbanisation and industrialisation contribute to dietary transitions. These transitions often result in reduced consumption of traditional foods and greater intake of ultra-processed foods, paralleling the trends seen in Western dietary patterns. MD, historically rooted in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, offers a dietary model that could counteract these trends by emphasising nutrient-dense, anti-inflammatory foods such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, and olive oil. Importantly, the principles of MD can be adapted to diverse cultural and economic contexts, allowing global populations to benefit from its health-promoting effects even without direct acce