The path of promoting adolescents' physical exercise: Based on the control-value theory of achievement emotions.

Sleep is a fundamental physiological process, and sleep disruption has been linked to various conditions, including psychiatric disorders, diabetes, and disturbances in the reproductive cycle (–). In addition to its basic biological importance, the temporal regulation of sleep and wakefulness serves as a crucial mechanism for environmental adaptation. For example, by modulating diurnal and nocturnal behaviors, animals reduce the risk of predation by adjusting their sleep patterns according to the time of day (). In critical situations, such as the presence of predators or the sudden unavailability of food, animals can override the need for sleep to prioritize immediate survival. In unfamiliar environments, staying awake enables animals to evaluate potential threats and ensure the safety of their surroundings. A similar phenomenon occurs in humans, commonly referred to as the “first night effect”(), wherein individuals experience increased wakefulness during their first night in an unfamiliar setting. This heightened vigilance typically diminishes by the second night (). Various brain regions and neuronal populations involved in sleep regulation have been reported (). For instance, orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus, dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr), and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) are known to promote wakefulness (–). Conversely, GABAergic neurons in the preoptic area, parafacial zone, the VTA, ventrolateral periaqueductal gray, ventral zona incerta, basal forebrain, and amygdala play key roles in sleep regulation (–). These complex neural circuits coordinate the regulation of sleep and wakefulness. Several brain regions are reported to be activated in response to novel environments (–). Furthermore, exposure to such environments elevates blood corticosterone levels and increases arousal (, ). This response is mediated by activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, driven by CRF neurons, which are key players in the stress response (). CRF neurons are thought to play a critical role in maintaining arousal (). These neurons are not only located in the PVN but also in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and the amygdala (–). Although PVN neurons are known to contribute to wakefulness (, , ), the role of CRF neurons in other regions in regulating wakefulness, particularly during exposure to novel environments, remains unclear.