Efficacy and safety of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists in pediatric obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Formal and informal tests/exams are ubiquitous forms of student performance and progress assessment across many OECD countries (Mostafa, ). It is almost inevitable that many, if not all, students will find that a test/exam did not go as well as they had hoped at some point. The student could find the test/exam difficult, struggle to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, or not perform as well as expected. Students' responses to such challenges will determine subsequent educational flourishing or struggling (Skinner et al., , ). The effective response to academic stress and challenge, such as an exam that did not go well, is conceptualized by Martin and Marsh () as ‘academic buoyancy’, a proactive psychological asset that enables students to maintain their educational trajectory. While studies examining the coping strategies used in the face of challenging tests/exams are scarce (Putwain et al., ), they suggest that highly buoyant students employ more adaptive and fewer non‐adaptive strategies likely to overcome challenges and maintain a positive educational trajectory. Theoretically, greater use of adaptive and lesser use of non‐adaptive coping (i.e., ‘effective’ coping) would reinforce students' belief in their academic buoyancy, suggesting relations would be bidirectional. Moreover, academic buoyancy and effective coping could recursively benefit achievement, but studies that include achievement are scarce. In the present study, we address these limitations and examine bidirectional relations between academic buoyancy and coping alongside achievement. As the definition above emphasizes, academic buoyancy is the capacity to overcome the challenges and stresses typical of education (Martin & Marsh, , ). From a Conservation of Resource Theory (COR; Hobfoll et al., , ) perspective, it can be characterized as a personal resource (alongside objects, conditions and energies) that leads to optimal human functioning. Consistent with this conceptualisation, Finnish Grade 6 students (pre‐transition to secondary school) who were highly buoyant showed lower school stress measured 6 months later, beyond that of temperament and prior achievement (Hirvonen et al., ). Moreover, highly buoyant Finnish Year 7 students (post‐transition to secondary school) showed lower school stress 18 months later in Grade 9, after controlling for parental education level and cognitive ability (Hoferichter et al., ). Studies of students using longitudinal samples of primary and secondary students from Australia, England and Finland show that buoyancy predicts achievement emotions (e.g., higher enjoyment and pride, lower anxiety and boredom) and study behaviours (e.g., planning, effort and persistence) that are conducive to learning and achievement (Hirvonen et al., ; Martin et al., ; Putwain et al., , ). Several studies have shown that academic buoyancy is reciprocally related to cognate assets, including lower anxiety and greater competence beliefs, motivation and engagement (Bostwick et al., ; Martin et al., , ; Putwain et al., ). Academic buoyancy typically shows small (Putwain & Aveyard, ) or negligible (Collie et al., ) positive relations with achievement. As a proactive asset, academic buoyancy may play a role in protecting the achievement declines that would have been expected to result from adversity (Martin & Marsh, ; Putwain et al., ). The net result may be a small or negligible zero‐order correlation, but that need not imply that academic buoyancy is unrelated to achievement. Indeed, positive indirect relations between academic buoyancy and achievement, mediated by greater control (Collie et al., ), greater academic self‐concept (Colmar et al., ), and lower emotional exhaustion (Granziera et al., ), can be found even when zero‐order correlations are small or negligible. Studies using longitudinal designs to unpack directionality are scarce. In one such study, Putwain and Wood () found that test scores positively predicted academic buoyancy, but academic buoyancy predicted achievement on only one of two waves.