Realism redefined: Is realism in virtual 3D visualizations overrated in anatomy learning?

Family and school are two primary environments where children learn and develop. They contribute to children's developmental journey in different but complementary ways (Rimm‐Kaufman & Pianta, ). In recent years, there has been growing evidence of the benefits of parent–teacher collaboration for parents and their children (Ivanova et al., ; Lang et al., ; Lekli & Kaloti, ). Although early numeracy skills are crucial for later math learning (Jordan et al., ; LeFevre, Fast, et al., ) and deserve research attention, up until now, we know little about the relation between parent–teacher collaboration and young children's numeracy skills and its underlying mechanisms. In the literature, parent–teacher collaboration has been found to alleviate parent–child conflict, reinforce parents' support for their children's learning and enhance parents' abilities to teach their children (Ivanova et al., ; Lang et al., ; Lekli & Kaloti, ). Meanwhile, there is evidence that parental stress, especially stress from parent–child dysfunctional interaction, may create barriers to parental involvement in their children's learning at home (Baker, ; Can & Ginsburg‐Block, ). Parental beliefs about the importance of their involvement in children's education and beliefs about their ability to support children's academic development have also been shown as essential determinants of the home learning environment (Cheung et al., ; Cheung, Ho, et al., ; Surrain & Luk, ). In light of the above, the present study investigated whether parent–teacher collaboration is associated with children's early numeracy skills through parents' stress from parent–child dysfunctional interaction, perceived importance of their role in early math learning, perceived behavioural control about helping children learn math and the frequency of home numeracy activities. The study can expand knowledge in the home math literature by providing insights into the mechanisms linking parent–teacher collaboration to children's early numeracy skills. Various theoretical perspectives can provide insights into the potential benefits of parent–teacher collaboration for parents and children. Bronfenbrenner's () ecological systems theory, for example, posits that children's development is influenced by interrelated environmental systems. While the microsystem (which constitutes the immediate settings and interactions with the surrounding people) has direct impacts on children's development, the mesosystem (which refers to the reciprocal connections and interactions between microsystems, such as the parent–teacher relationship) can also contribute to development both directly and indirectly through microsystem processes (Bronfenbrenner, ). A strong parent–teacher partnership may therefore benefit children's academic performance by helping parents gain deeper insights into their children's learning needs and enabling them to respond effectively to their children. Meanwhile, Hobfoll's () conservation of resources theory presumes that individuals experience stress when their available resources are not sufficient to meet the challenges they encounter. Based on this notion, parent–teacher collaboration can function as a valuable source of resource gain for parents, as they can acquire knowledge about how to support their children to learn and receive emotional support from teachers. These gains can help parents build their resource caravans, thereby reducing their parenting stress, including stress associated with interacting with their children. Role theory (e.g., Biddle, ), on the other hand, postulates that individuals construct their roles based on others' expectations. Accordingly, parent–teacher collaboration can help parents better understand their role in children's learning. Last but not least, Bandura's () theory asserts that mastery experiences, vicarious experience and social persuasion are key sources influencing individuals' self‐efficacy in performing a task. Through parent–teacher collaboration, teachers can empower parents with confidence and effective strategies for helping their children learn. When parents apply these strategies at home, they gain mastery experiences, which in turn can increase their self‐efficacy in helping their children learn.