Comparative health risk assessment of occupational dust exposure in industrial sectors using multiple models and monte carlo simulation.

The emergence of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in late 2019 marked one of the most significant public health crises in modern history. The pandemic’s rapid global spread, high morbidity and mortality, and wide-ranging socio-economic impacts exposed gaps in health systems and governance across countries [, ]. In Nigeria, as in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the pandemic tested the resilience of healthcare delivery structures, risk communication mechanisms, and public trust in health interventions [, ]. Vaccination has been widely recognized as a cornerstone of the global COVID-19 response. However, its success relies heavily on the population’s willingness to be vaccinated. The introduction of the COVID-19 vaccine in Nigeria was met with mixed reactions, ranging from cautious optimism to skepticism, fear, and outright rejection, especially among vulnerable or marginalized groups often referred to as “key populations.” COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy, which is the delay in acceptance or refusal of vaccines despite availability has emerged as a significant challenge to global immunization efforts []. The World Health Organization (WHO) identified vaccine hesitancy as one of the top ten threats to global health even before the COVID-19 pandemic []. In Nigeria, the issue of vaccine hesitancy is multifaceted, influenced by sociocultural, religious, political, and historical contexts. Deep-seated mistrust of government and health authorities, misinformation about vaccine safety, and rumors about hidden agendas have all contributed to public reluctance []. The introduction of the COVID-19 vaccine reignited these concerns, with social media amplifying misinformation regarding side effects, infertility, and conspiracy theories about population control []. As a result, despite the availability of vaccines, Nigeria’s vaccination coverage has remained suboptimal compared to global targets. The situation is further complicated among key populations groups that are socially or medically marginalized, often facing multiple layers of vulnerability, stigma, and exclusion. These populations include people who inject drugs (PWID), female sex workers (FSW), men who have sex with men (MSM) living with HIV/AIDS. Previous research in Nigeria has largely focused on general population attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccination, emphasizing factors such as age, education, religion, and exposure to information [, ]. While these studies have provided valuable insights, there remains a notable gap in understanding the perspectives of key populations, especially those with complex social vulnerabilities.