Neural similarity between choice options predicts group-level context effects.

Individuals who engage in social interaction require certain communication skills and the ability to use them effectively. Enabling individuals to realize their potential and use their communication skills effectively is a fundamental goal of contemporary education []. Language skills are central to this goal, encompassing expression (speaking, writing) and comprehension (reading, listening). Among these, listening is the first and primary skill acquired []. Listening is an active process that requires the conscious participation of the receiver and involves constructing meaning from verbal and nonverbal messages [, , ]. It has been reported to account for approximately 40–50% of communication time []. However, research shows that listening skills in schools are often treated as passive reception in both theory and practice,accordingly, students' performance in understanding what they hear shows significant deficiencies [, , ]. Although the Middle School Turkish Language Teaching Program targets critical thinking and social-emotional learning in addition to language skills, there remains a need for interaction-based models that structure listening in an effective and motivating way in classroom practice [, ]. The Turkey Century Education Model and the Middle School Turkish Language Curriculum emphasise dimensions such as listening and watching, critical thinking, social-emotional learning, self-awareness, communication, and collaboration. As outlined in the Turkey Century Education Model, it is important for children’s development that they learn to question, ask questions, engage in discussion, seek answers, listen to others, and respond to them []. The Turkey Century Education Model also aims to cultivate individuals who internalise philosophical knowledge through philosophical thinking, inquiry, reading, writing, and discussion skills []. For this reason, Philosophy for Children (P4C) can be considered an appropriate model for concretising the programme’s vision within the classroom. Additionally, while Turkish language courses are responsible for developing the four basic language skills, low achievement in listening and weak interest and motivation in classes have been reported for a long time [, , ]. Motivation is defined as a multidimensional construct that initiates and sustains behaviors in the interaction between the learner and their environment. In language learning, it is characterized by the desire to learn, a positive attitude, and effort [, , , ]. Research shows that highly motivated students are more successful in language learning courses and manage strategic listening comprehension processes more effectively [, , –, , ]. In contrast, low motivation and attention problems in classes have been reported to hinder the lasting development of listening skills [, , ]. This indicates that listening skills have both cognitive and affective dimensions,therefore, the relationship between listening and motivation should be addressed together in instructional design. In this study, motivation is not considered as general school or classroom motivation, but as a subject-specific construct related to students’ interest in, positive attitude towards, willingness to participate in, and tendency to exert effort in Turkish lessons. Therefore, the research focuses on the affective orientation demonstrated by students within the context of a specific subject. The literature also emphasises that examining motivation in a context- and subject-sensitive manner leads to a more accurate assessment of the effectiveness of instructional interventions [, ]. This integrated perspective requires a shift toward contemporary educational approaches that prioritize affective engagement alongside cognitive activity in the learning process. Models that simultaneously engage students' thinking, listening, and communication skills are considered especially effective in meeting the complex learning demands of the twenty-first century. This educational perspective does not limit language teaching to grammatical accuracy; it also aims to develop life skills such as critical thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, and problem solving [, , ]. Additionally, autonomous learning environments and activities provide students with opportunities to practice and develop their listening and speaking skills in a supportive and collaborative setting []. In this context, the P4C approach offers a noteworthy pedagogical model. P4C is a teaching method based on Socratic questioning, constructivism, and democratic classroom principles, centering on student participation and active listening [, , ]. P4C sessions require students to focus on the flow of conversation, listen to their peers without interruption, and reflectively re-evaluate their own thoughts. Mindfulness is defined as directing attention to the present moment in a conscious and non-judgemental manner []. In this context, although P4C is not a direct mindfulness training