Subjective energy poverty and attitudes on climate change mitigation measures: Empirical and ethical considerations.

Health-seeking behaviors—comprising formal health care utilization, and potentially other proactive practices such as use of supplements, self-treatment, and traditional health care utilization—are key determinants of health and well-being, especially in later life when health vulnerabilities increase and care needs intensify (; ). In most contexts, close kin (e.g., spouse and adult children) play a central role, facilitating access to care and shaping when, how, and where individuals seek services (; ). However, demographic changes (e.g., increased longevity and migration, smaller family size) and evolving lifestyle preferences toward independence mean that growing numbers of older adults are aging without nearby kin (). This trend is increasingly evident in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where expectations of familial support in later life remain strong (). Limited familial ties may thus significantly shape the support structure of older adults (; ), and this may have profound consequences on their health-seeking practices. This study draws on nationally representative data from Wave 5 of the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) to examine how limited familial ties are associated with older adults’ health-seeking behaviors in Indonesia—a middle-income country with the world’s fourth largest population and among the fastest aging societies in Southeast Asia (). Using latent class analysis (LCA), we empirically identify health-seeking profiles that reflect a fuller range of practices within Indonesia—including preventive care, curative services, self-treatment, and traditional medicine. While limited familial ties can be assessed based on the functional aspect of familial relationships (e.g., exchange and support, relationship quality), our study primarily focuses on various structural characteristics of familial ties (e.g., presence/absence of family ties, proximity, frequency of contact) that shape opportunities for interactions (). More specifically, we consider how spousal absence, living alone, geographical separation from children, and infrequent parent–child contact are associated with health-seeking behaviors. We also examine whether community engagement and trust buffer the potentially negative effects of limited family ties. Social relationships—whether with family, friends, or community—are well-established determinants of health-seeking behaviors (; ; ). Social support theory posits that supportive relationships provide financial, instrumental, and emotional resources that facilitate health-seeking (). Social contagion theory further argues that health-related beliefs and practices can be transmitted through social networks (), while social control theory highlights how social relationships exert normative pressure, shaping behaviors through direct monitoring or internalized obligations (; ). These frameworks suggest that close familial ties promote active health-seeking behaviors in later life, while the absence of such ties may constrain them.