Long-term breastfeeding outcomes in very preterm infants: predictors and challenges.

The COVID‐19 pandemic has severely disrupted economic stability in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) like Bangladesh, exacerbating challenges related to food security, diet quality, and overall well‐being, particularly among low‐income populations. The low‐income populations have been the most adversely affected group by the negative impacts of the pandemic [, ]. As the global economy began to recover, the onset of the Russia–Ukraine war further destabilized food systems by disrupting supply chains, driving up food prices, and limiting access to nutritious food [, ]. Recent evidence indicates that the Russia–Ukraine conflict has had widespread implications for developing countries, especially those heavily dependent on imported staple commodities such as wheat, maize, and sunflower oil. For instance, global food prices and availability have been severely affected, exacerbating food insecurity in low‐income nations []. Rising food prices have also forced many households in developing contexts to reduce dietary diversity, relying more on calorie‐dense but nutrient‐poor staples at the expense of fruits, vegetables, and protein sources []. In Bangladesh, approximately 18.7% of the population lives below the poverty line, with the urban poverty rate at 14.7% []. A significant portion of the urban poor reside in slum areas, where 23.3% of residents live in poverty []. Even before these global shocks, low‐income communities in Dhaka faced persistent challenges. Inadequate infrastructure, overcrowded living conditions, limited access to clean water, and insufficient healthcare and social safety nets had already contributed to chronic food insecurity and poor diet quality [, ]. The Russia–Ukraine war further intensified these challenges by disrupting global supply chains and raising import costs for essential goods, leading to sharp increases in food and fuel prices in Bangladesh [, , ]. Over the past 5 years, food inflation in Bangladesh has followed a steep upward trend. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, food inflation reached approximately 10.72% in January 2025 [], while the Bangladesh Economic Review 2023–24 reported urban food inflation at around 10.65% and non‐food inflation at 8.87% []. This sustained rise in prices has disproportionately burdened urban low‐income households, further constraining their food security and dietary diversity. Food insecurity, defined as the lack of consistent access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food necessary for a healthy and active life, remains a major public health concern in Bangladesh. Approximately 9 million individuals are currently experiencing acute food insecurity, primarily due to rising food prices and reduced income opportunities []. The “State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023” report highlights that over 52.7 million Bangladeshis face some degree of food insecurity []. Evidence from urban slums further highlights the disproportionate burden on low‐income households, with a recent study reporting that 38% of adults in these settings experience severe food insecurity []. Food security is intrinsically linked to diet quality [], and the affordability of a healthy diet is largely dependent on income levels []. Data from the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) 2016 revealed that staple foods constituted 70.4% of the average daily energy intake in Bangladesh, underscoring the poor dietary diversity of the population []. A recent study found that nearly 43% of households cannot afford a nutritionally adequate diet, often prioritizing starchy staples over nutrient‐rich foods []. The situation is even more severe in slum areas, where dietary diversity remains low due to financial constraints and limited access to diverse food groups [, ].