Manifestations of Psychological Distress in Emerging Adults Experiencing Quarter-life Crisis: a Systematic Review.

Climate change and human activities have significantly accelerated wildfire activity globally, leading to longer, more frequent, and more intense wildfire seasons (). In the fire-prone regions across the Western United States (US) and Canada, exposure to wildfire smoke poses a significant and growing threat to public health (; ). Wildfire smoke contains many air pollutants including particulate matter, toxic gases, and carcinogens. In recent years, up to half of the fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the Western US can be attributed to wildfires, compared to less than 20 % a decade ago (). As wildfire smoke can travel long distances, it can significantly degrade both local and regional air quality, potentially leading to serious health effects such as asthma exacerbation, heart failure, and impacts on cognitive and mental health (; ). Exposure to PM2.5 from wildfire smoke cannot be controlled using the regulatory mechanisms that have been effective for other air pollutants, and it also appears to be more toxic to health than PM2.5 from other sources (e.g., traffic-related emissions) (; ). Therefore, managing air quality risks during wildfire smoke episodes is crucial to safeguarding public health in the face of increasing wildfires. Children appear to be especially sensitive to wildfire smoke due to their physiology and behaviours. For example, compared to the average adult, children spend more time outdoors, breathe more air relative to their bodyweight, have lungs that are still developing, and experience deeper deposition of fine particles into their lungs (; ). Exposure to wildfire smoke has been linked to both short-term and long-term health consequences in children, such as increases in respiratory hospitalizations and declines in lung function (; ). Even healthy children can suffer serious health effects from exposure and health impacts can occur at levels below regulatory thresholds (; ). As a result, risk-mitigation strategies aimed specifically at reducing children’s exposures to wildfire smoke are needed. In recent years, public health agencies have made considerable efforts to encourage parents to adopt protective actions that reduce children’s exposure to wildfire smoke (; ). Low-cost behaviours like checking smoke levels using air quality indexes, staying indoors and avoiding strenuous physical activity outdoors, and wearing well-fitted respirators during wildfire smoke events can significantly reduce smoke exposure (; ). Other effective smoke-safe actions for children and families include using portable air purifiers at home, relocating to areas with less smoke, and visiting clean air shelters in schools or community centres with high-quality ventilation systems (; ).