A Dyad-Based Intervention to Improve Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy among People with HIV who Inject Drugs in Kazakhstan: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial.
Authors: Davis A, Rozental E, Bolger N, Gulyayev V, Gulyayev P, Denebayeva A, Wen H, Cui J, Terlikbayeva A, Primbetova S, Samandas J, Altice FL, Remien RH, Mergenova G
Journal: AIDS and behavior
mental health
psychology
open access
Abstract
Communicable diseases are an ever-evolving
concern. The transmission
of pathogens, which can cause acute respiratory illnesses, is no exception.
A viral infection is a serious global health issue that can affect
people from different countries. The difficulty in detecting and treating
these infections can lead to an increase in transmission and costly
treatment. The coronavirus disease, known
as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was first identified in early
2020. Moreover, the global COVID-19 pandemic is the biggest public
health challenge since the 1918 influenza epidemic. It has since killed over 1.8 million people and infected
over 82 million individuals globally. The
results of the study by the International Committee on Taxonomy of
Viruses (ICTV), which was conducted based on high-throughput sequencing,
revealed that COVID-19 was caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The
World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the COVID-19 pandemic
in March 2020 due to the lack of effective treatments for the disease.
The rapid emergence and evolution of the disease have created a challenging
situation for various healthcare systems in different countries. The
coronavirus pandemic is a type of death-dealing disease that affects
people of all ages. It can affect children,
the elderly, and people with certain underlying conditions. Before
December 2019, six types of coronaviruses were likewise known to cause
severe illness and gastrointestinal symptoms. Two of these, namely Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), caused severe illness and
were responsible for the SARS (2003) and MERS (2012) pandemics, which
now include COVID-19, the three significant developments in the history
of the coronavirus pandemic. The first
one, SARS, had a mortality rate of 10%, then the MERS coronavirus
outbreak had a mortality rate of 37%, and, cumulatively, they both
caused roughly 10,000 cases. The third
pandemic (COVID-19) exhibited higher infectivity and virulence than
the previous two. In addition to SARS
and MERS, as mentioned, four other coronaviruses caused severe illness
and were responsible for the outbreak in China in 2002. Additionally, due to genetic modification, different
variants of the SARS-CoV-2 disease have emerged. Some of these cause severe illness and can trigger a high
infection rate. On the other hand, others cause relatively mild symptoms
and can cause an unusually high number of infections. Like other respiratory
diseases, the main mode of transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is
through large droplets. However, it can
also be transmitted through contact with contaminated objects and
aerosols of varying sizes. Thus, the pandemic was caused by the emergence
of an airborne transmission vector, which can easily infect people
who do not have symptoms. Moreover, it
defied traditional containment measures. It is expected that the disease
will continue to affect a wide population for several years. Many
countries have introduced effective strategies to combat the spread
of the coronavirus disease by identifying and monitoring the infected
individuals. However, despite the various
restrictions that have been placed on the movement of people and animals
due to the emergence of the coronavirus disease, the situation is
not under control. It has crippled economies in several countries. The SARS-CoV-2 virus contains over 28 different types of proteins. Generally, the structures of these proteins
are composed of the NP, which is a nucleocapsid protein and is used
to package the genetic material of the virus into a helical structure.
The other two proteins, the spike (S1) and the envelope (E), are then
positioned inside a lipidic membrane (M) to form the outer wall of
the virus. In principle, the spike protein
protrudes from the viral membrane. It then activates the receptor-binding
domain (RBD) of the virus to enter the host cells. This process is
mediated by the spike protein’s ability to recognize the angiotensin
2 (ACE2) receptor, which is a component of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor. The RBD region of the spike protein is a major
target for the neutralization of the virus. It can also be utilized
as a potential target for the development of diagnostic tools. The
spike protein is repeated several times on the surface of the virus.
However, the exact number of times this protein is replicated is still
unclear. One of the most common types of antigen tests used for COVID-19
is the nucleocapsid (N) protein. However, the S protein, as mentioned,
has a different sequence homology than the other viral components,
allowing it to be a more accurate target for the disease. The specificity
of the analytical tool depends on the target genes that are most likely
to cause the disease to spread. For instance,
the E gene is a highly conserved gene among all coronaviruses. The
N gene is also a cross-reactive gene that can cause the disease to
spread,
concern. The transmission
of pathogens, which can cause acute respiratory illnesses, is no exception.
A viral infection is a serious global health issue that can affect
people from different countries. The difficulty in detecting and treating
these infections can lead to an increase in transmission and costly
treatment. The coronavirus disease, known
as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was first identified in early
2020. Moreover, the global COVID-19 pandemic is the biggest public
health challenge since the 1918 influenza epidemic. It has since killed over 1.8 million people and infected
over 82 million individuals globally. The
results of the study by the International Committee on Taxonomy of
Viruses (ICTV), which was conducted based on high-throughput sequencing,
revealed that COVID-19 was caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The
World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the COVID-19 pandemic
in March 2020 due to the lack of effective treatments for the disease.
The rapid emergence and evolution of the disease have created a challenging
situation for various healthcare systems in different countries. The
coronavirus pandemic is a type of death-dealing disease that affects
people of all ages. It can affect children,
the elderly, and people with certain underlying conditions. Before
December 2019, six types of coronaviruses were likewise known to cause
severe illness and gastrointestinal symptoms. Two of these, namely Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), caused severe illness and
were responsible for the SARS (2003) and MERS (2012) pandemics, which
now include COVID-19, the three significant developments in the history
of the coronavirus pandemic. The first
one, SARS, had a mortality rate of 10%, then the MERS coronavirus
outbreak had a mortality rate of 37%, and, cumulatively, they both
caused roughly 10,000 cases. The third
pandemic (COVID-19) exhibited higher infectivity and virulence than
the previous two. In addition to SARS
and MERS, as mentioned, four other coronaviruses caused severe illness
and were responsible for the outbreak in China in 2002. Additionally, due to genetic modification, different
variants of the SARS-CoV-2 disease have emerged. Some of these cause severe illness and can trigger a high
infection rate. On the other hand, others cause relatively mild symptoms
and can cause an unusually high number of infections. Like other respiratory
diseases, the main mode of transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is
through large droplets. However, it can
also be transmitted through contact with contaminated objects and
aerosols of varying sizes. Thus, the pandemic was caused by the emergence
of an airborne transmission vector, which can easily infect people
who do not have symptoms. Moreover, it
defied traditional containment measures. It is expected that the disease
will continue to affect a wide population for several years. Many
countries have introduced effective strategies to combat the spread
of the coronavirus disease by identifying and monitoring the infected
individuals. However, despite the various
restrictions that have been placed on the movement of people and animals
due to the emergence of the coronavirus disease, the situation is
not under control. It has crippled economies in several countries. The SARS-CoV-2 virus contains over 28 different types of proteins. Generally, the structures of these proteins
are composed of the NP, which is a nucleocapsid protein and is used
to package the genetic material of the virus into a helical structure.
The other two proteins, the spike (S1) and the envelope (E), are then
positioned inside a lipidic membrane (M) to form the outer wall of
the virus. In principle, the spike protein
protrudes from the viral membrane. It then activates the receptor-binding
domain (RBD) of the virus to enter the host cells. This process is
mediated by the spike protein’s ability to recognize the angiotensin
2 (ACE2) receptor, which is a component of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor. The RBD region of the spike protein is a major
target for the neutralization of the virus. It can also be utilized
as a potential target for the development of diagnostic tools. The
spike protein is repeated several times on the surface of the virus.
However, the exact number of times this protein is replicated is still
unclear. One of the most common types of antigen tests used for COVID-19
is the nucleocapsid (N) protein. However, the S protein, as mentioned,
has a different sequence homology than the other viral components,
allowing it to be a more accurate target for the disease. The specificity
of the analytical tool depends on the target genes that are most likely
to cause the disease to spread. For instance,
the E gene is a highly conserved gene among all coronaviruses. The
N gene is also a cross-reactive gene that can cause the disease to
spread,