A deep learning model to dynamically predict cancer-associated thromboembolism in large-scale healthcare systems.

Malnutrition is one of the most serious public health concerns affecting at least half of children under five years of age in developing countries [–]. Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in energy and/or nutrient intake, or impaired nutrient utilization, and includes undernutrition, overweight, and obesity []. In this paper, we considered under-nutrition and malnutrition equivalently. The indicators of childhood undernutrition involve stunting, underweight, and wasting. Stunting, underweight, and wasting occur in children under five years who are below 2 standard deviations from the median height-for-age, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height, respectively, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards []. Malnutrition in early childhood is associated with functional damage in adult life, as malnourished children are physically and intellectually less productive when they become adults [, ]. Children who are malnourished tend to have an increased risk of morbidity and mortality, and often suffer from delayed mental development, poor school performance, and reduced intellectual achievement []. According to the UNICEF–WHO–World Bank Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates, in 2024, the global prevalence of stunting (height-for-age), underweight (weight-for-age), and wasting (weight-for-height) among children under five years was 23.2%, 12.2%, and 6.6%, respectively [–]. According to recent reports for 2024, approximately 150.2 million children under five years of age are stunted, 42.8 million are wasted, and 35.5 million are underweight worldwide []. In 2024, an estimated 4.9 million children died before reaching their fifth birthday worldwide []. Moreover, in 2024, 51% of children under five affected by stunting lived in Asia, and 43% lived in Africa []. For wasting, WHO reported that in 2020, 70% of affected children lived in Asia and 27% in Africa []. According to the report for 2025 published by the International Food Policy and Research Institute (IFPRI), Bangladesh is ranked as the 85th hunger-prone country out of a total of 123 countries based on the Global Hunger Index []. Malnutrition remains a major public health concern in Bangladesh, with more than half of the population affected, including approximately 450,000 children with severe acute malnutrition and nearly two million with mild acute malnutrition []. Children’s nutritional status has gradually improved over the past decades: the prevalence of stunting among under-five children declined from 51% in 2004 to 43% in 2007, 41% in 2011, 36% in 2014, 31% in 2018, and 24% in 2022; underweight decreased from 43% in 2004 to 41% in 2007, 36% in 2011, 33% in 2014, and 22% in both 2018 and 2022; similarly, wasting showed some fluctuation but an overall decline from 15% in 2004 to 17% in 2007, 16% in 2011, 14% in 2014, 9% in 2018, and 11% in 2022 [–]. However, Bangladesh still has a higher than acceptable rate of malnutrition, with 10% of the population being underweight and 30% of the population being stunted [–]. The government of Bangladesh has strongly committed to achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture; all these nutrition-related factors are included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) []. The country won’t achieve its SDG goal of reducing child mortality if undernutrition is not properly controlled []. To plan and implement effective community-level interventions, the health system must identify malnutrition early.