Mapping health-related quality of life measurement tools in Africa: a scoping review.

The TPB-based online education model demonstrated significant contributions to GDM self-management and certain metabolic control variables. Therefore, nurses are encouraged to take an active role in the management of gestational diabetes, guide pregnant women in improving their self-management, and provide online consultation support without time or location constraints. The prevalence of GDM, one of the most common complications during pregnancy, has been increasing globally due to the rising rates of obesity and sedentary lifestyles []. It is reported that over 21 million births worldwide are affected by maternal diabetes []. According to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) (2019), 84% of pregnant women affected by hyperglycemia are diagnosed with GDM []. GDM is associated with a range of complications, from birth traumas to an increased risk of developing diabetes later in life, posing risks to maternal, fetal, and neonatal health. Given the significant short- and long-term health and financial burdens it creates, controlling GDM is of critical importance [, ]. Prior to initiating medical treatment, the primary approach to GDM management during the perinatal period is a combination of lifestyle modifications, including nutrition education, physical activity, and blood glucose monitoring [, ]. While lifestyle modification interventions alone can achieve glycemic control in 70–85% of women with GDM, individual differences should not be overlooked []. These individual differences, both modifiable (environmental factors, lifestyle habits) and non-modifiable (genetic predisposition, advanced maternal age, prior related conditions), are key variables in assessing risk factors and enabling early intervention [, ].