Region- and Layer-Specific Glutamatergic Synapse Development in the Nascent Cortical Hierarchy.

Every year, as over 20,000 students matriculate into medical schools across the United States, educators are tasked with preparing the next generation of physicians to meet society’s changing health needs in the context of increasingly complex healthcare delivery systems [–]. Multiple accrediting and medical organizations emphasize teaching medical students the foundational skills needed to improve health outcomes at both the individual and population levels, ideally prioritizing whole health, patient and physician well-being, and using integrated approaches grounded in health systems science, population health, and public health [–]. Accordingly, in addition to developing strong clinical acumen, students must develop a broader set of professional skills they can leverage to meaningfully impact the health of the patients and communities they serve [, , , ]. Educators can help students achieve this goal through training in health advocacy []. The American Medical Association (AMA) Declaration of Professional Responsibility emphasizes that concerted and committed effort is needed to improve human health globally and positions advocacy as a core aspect of present-day physicians’ duties, urging physicians to transcend personal beliefs and affiliations to advocate for changes that promote human health []. Cultivating this aspect of professional identity requires thoughtful curricula that teach practical advocacy-related knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) that students can use to identify and critically evaluate areas for improving healthcare delivery and outcomes. Despite the clear recognition of its importance, advocacy training in undergraduate medical education (UME) remains variable and challenging [, , , –]. Currently, over three-fourths of American medical schools offer at least one course in advocacy, but courses are often elective in nature, created in silos, have varying targeted competencies, and are infrequently published as shared curricula [, , ]. Understanding key elements of existing advocacy courses can help identify best practices, persistent gaps, and opportunities to strengthen advocacy training in UME.