Prey capture strategies relate to prey position in the scale-eating cichlid Perissodus microlepis.

Fluent speech is automatic and emerges from a complex process involving rapid lexical retrieval, grammatical structuring, motor-speech program implementation, and coordination of prelinguistic planning, cognitive-language processing, and articulatory skills (breathing, phonation, articulation). Effective coordination across these stages is critical – any disruption leads to speech interruptions, resulting in disfluencies [–]. Speakers commonly produce temporary hesitations, repetitions, revisions, and slips (e.g., slips of the tongue or misarticulations), which are collectively referred to as disfluencies [, , ]. Disfluencies are normal in daily conversation; researchers found that there are approximately 2–26 disfluencies per 100 words. These disfluencies are considered normal as they do not impede communication or reflect underlying cognitive or linguistic impairment [–]. Despite widespread use of the term, the definition of disfluency varies across disciplines. In linguistics and psycholinguistics, disfluencies are often regarded as natural by-products of speech planning and language production processes, including phenomena such as filled pauses, repetitions, and revisions. In speech-language pathology (SLP), researchers commonly distinguish between typical disfluencies, which occur in everyday speech (e.g., interjections or phrase repetitions), and atypical or stuttering-like disfluencies, such as sound repetitions, prolongations, and blocks associated with stuttering disorders.