Social Relationships and Experimental Pain Sensitivity in Healthy Adolescent Girls: An Exploratory Preliminary Study.

Cognitive impairment serves as an umbrella term for a broad spectrum of cognitive decline, which commonly occurs in older adults, with global prevalence from 5.1% to 41.0% and incidence from 22 to 77.8 per 1,000 person-years []. Within the clinical spectrum, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) represents a specific, early stage of cognitive decline characterized by measurable changes in memory or thinking, though independence in daily activities remained. Individuals with MCI are at high risk of progressing to dementia, particularly Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [,], or returning to normal cognition []. However, varying degrees of cognitive impairment are also commonly observed across a wide range of neurological disorders, such as stroke, Parkinson’s disease (PD), and multiple sclerosis (MS) [–]. Individuals with MCI typically experience short-term memory loss, reduced learning ability, poor attention, and difficulties in problem-solving, all of which interfere with daily functioning []. Emerging evidence underscores the bidirectional relationship between cognitive impairment and physical decline [,]. Individuals with MCI and AD often present with reduced muscle strength, slow gait speed, and impaired balance [–], indicating that cognitive and physical functions tend to deteriorate concurrently in these populations. Exercise is a safe, low-cost nonpharmacological therapy that improves muscle strength, balance, and cognitive performance partly through neurogenesis, cardiovascular health, and enhances mitochondrial stability [,]. The cognitive effect of exercise is linked to neural plasticity, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) production, and improved energy metabolism [,]. It also activates organ-brain signaling by releasing cytokines linked to cognitive function []. For individuals with MCI or dementia, several exercise modalities have been shown to be effective, including aerobic training, resistance training, mind-body exercise, and multicomponent programs []. Existing evidence indicates that resistance training may help slow cognitive decline, while multicomponent exercise appears beneficial for improving global cognition and executive function [].