Correction: Enhancing academic writing skills and motivation: assessing the efficacy of ChatGPT in AI-assisted language learning for EFL students.
Authors: Song C, Song Y
Journal: Frontiers in psychology
mental health
psychology
open access
Abstract
The nervous system is one of the most
vulnerable organ systems
to toxic injury due to the interdependence of neurodevelopmental processes
and where perturbations can result in profound structural and/or functional
consequences. Epidemiological studies
indicate that exposure to pesticides (e.g., rotenone, paraquat, chlorpyrifos),
metals (e.g., lead, mercury), neuroactive drugs (e.g., benzodiazepines,
anticholinergics), or industrial chemicals (e.g., polychlorinated
biphenyls, brominated flame retardants, phthalates) contributes to
neurobehavioral pathologies such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, and other neurodevelopmental deficits. These associations are supported by experimental
findings in mice, rats, nonhuman primates, and other, nonmammalian models. Despite these
associations, most neurotoxicants remain unknown. This is highlighted by the fact that, to date, fewer than
200 chemicals, out of a predicted global
inventory of registered chemicals and mixtures of more than 350,000
substances, have been tested according
to guideline neurotoxicity studies including acute (28 d), subchronic
(90 d), and chronic (≥1 year) adult neurotoxicity and developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) studies, and are publicly available in the US EPA ToxRef database. This lack of information exists because DNT studies are typically conducted in rats, costly (∼$1,000,000 per chemical), laborious (∼1 year per chemical), and raise ethical concerns. As untested chemicals
should not be presumed safe, a new testing
paradigm is needed to assess the ever-expanding universe of potentially
neurotoxic chemicals. To fill this gap, an integrated
testing strategy that combines models, techniques, and alternative animal models, collectively
referred to as New Approach Methods (NAMs), has been proposed.
methods
(e.g., grouping and read-across, quantitative structure–activity
relationships) can be used to predict ADME (absorption, distribution,
metabolism, excretion) processes (e.g., blood-brain barrier penetration),
to model physiologically based toxicokinetics and to predict mechanisms
based on relationships between chemical structure/properties and biological
activity.
approaches
rely on the experimental data. International efforts to enhance neurotoxicity
testing involve the establishment of a DNT testing battery that depicts key neurodevelopmental processes including
proliferation, migration, differentiation, apoptosis, neurite outgrowth,
synaptogenesis, and functional network formation in a suite of rodent-
and human-based cell models. The underlying assumption
of this approach is that the alteration of any of these processes
is indicative of DNT. Despite advances
in depicting the processes that orchestrate nervous system development
and function , more complex functional end
points at the organismal level, including complex behaviors, remain
elusive. In particular, assays fail to capture
behavior end points assessed in guideline DNT studies including motor
activity, motor and sensory function, learning, and memory. The zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate
model that can bridge the
gap between and mammalian-based studies. Although zebrafish are phylogenetically
more distant from humans than rodents, 70% of human genes and 82%
of disease-associated human genes have a zebrafish orthologue. Embryo-larval stages of zebrafish up to 5 d
post fertilization (dpf) are nonprotected and therefore considered to be an alternative to mammalian testing. The high reproduction rate, rapid development, and small size of embryo-larval stages
make zebrafish amenable to medium-to-high-throughput screens. Early
life-stage zebrafish provide a diverse repertoire of behaviors such
as spontaneous tail contractions, touch-evoked
responses, visual and acoustic startle responses, phototaxis, learning
and memory. While multibehavioral phenotyping
in zebrafish has been widely applied in drug discovery, molecular target identification, and to study
neurological disorders, the behavior-rich repertoire
of zebrafish has yet to be fully deployed to identify and characterize
chemicals that cause neurotoxicity.
vulnerable organ systems
to toxic injury due to the interdependence of neurodevelopmental processes
and where perturbations can result in profound structural and/or functional
consequences. Epidemiological studies
indicate that exposure to pesticides (e.g., rotenone, paraquat, chlorpyrifos),
metals (e.g., lead, mercury), neuroactive drugs (e.g., benzodiazepines,
anticholinergics), or industrial chemicals (e.g., polychlorinated
biphenyls, brominated flame retardants, phthalates) contributes to
neurobehavioral pathologies such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, and other neurodevelopmental deficits. These associations are supported by experimental
findings in mice, rats, nonhuman primates, and other, nonmammalian models. Despite these
associations, most neurotoxicants remain unknown. This is highlighted by the fact that, to date, fewer than
200 chemicals, out of a predicted global
inventory of registered chemicals and mixtures of more than 350,000
substances, have been tested according
to guideline neurotoxicity studies including acute (28 d), subchronic
(90 d), and chronic (≥1 year) adult neurotoxicity and developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) studies, and are publicly available in the US EPA ToxRef database. This lack of information exists because DNT studies are typically conducted in rats, costly (∼$1,000,000 per chemical), laborious (∼1 year per chemical), and raise ethical concerns. As untested chemicals
should not be presumed safe, a new testing
paradigm is needed to assess the ever-expanding universe of potentially
neurotoxic chemicals. To fill this gap, an integrated
testing strategy that combines models, techniques, and alternative animal models, collectively
referred to as New Approach Methods (NAMs), has been proposed.
methods
(e.g., grouping and read-across, quantitative structure–activity
relationships) can be used to predict ADME (absorption, distribution,
metabolism, excretion) processes (e.g., blood-brain barrier penetration),
to model physiologically based toxicokinetics and to predict mechanisms
based on relationships between chemical structure/properties and biological
activity.
approaches
rely on the experimental data. International efforts to enhance neurotoxicity
testing involve the establishment of a DNT testing battery that depicts key neurodevelopmental processes including
proliferation, migration, differentiation, apoptosis, neurite outgrowth,
synaptogenesis, and functional network formation in a suite of rodent-
and human-based cell models. The underlying assumption
of this approach is that the alteration of any of these processes
is indicative of DNT. Despite advances
in depicting the processes that orchestrate nervous system development
and function , more complex functional end
points at the organismal level, including complex behaviors, remain
elusive. In particular, assays fail to capture
behavior end points assessed in guideline DNT studies including motor
activity, motor and sensory function, learning, and memory. The zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate
model that can bridge the
gap between and mammalian-based studies. Although zebrafish are phylogenetically
more distant from humans than rodents, 70% of human genes and 82%
of disease-associated human genes have a zebrafish orthologue. Embryo-larval stages of zebrafish up to 5 d
post fertilization (dpf) are nonprotected and therefore considered to be an alternative to mammalian testing. The high reproduction rate, rapid development, and small size of embryo-larval stages
make zebrafish amenable to medium-to-high-throughput screens. Early
life-stage zebrafish provide a diverse repertoire of behaviors such
as spontaneous tail contractions, touch-evoked
responses, visual and acoustic startle responses, phototaxis, learning
and memory. While multibehavioral phenotyping
in zebrafish has been widely applied in drug discovery, molecular target identification, and to study
neurological disorders, the behavior-rich repertoire
of zebrafish has yet to be fully deployed to identify and characterize
chemicals that cause neurotoxicity.