Perspective: large language models and antimicrobial resistance among migrants: an equity imperative.

Impaired growth is emerging as a concern in breastfed infants [–]. For decades, research on infant growth focused on children older than 6 months of age because of the assumption that milk was providing all the necessary nutrients for adequate infant growth [–]. Diverse milk components have been identified as critical for growth, including macronutrients, oligosaccharides, short-chain fatty acids, and endocrine factors [–]. Milk minerals for their part have typically been overlooked [], yet evidence of associations between milk minerals and infant growth is accumulating [, ]. For instance, a recent systematic review reported a positive correlation between infant growth and milk concentrations of iodine, manganese, calcium, and zinc []. Two studies conducted by our research group reported that low mineral concentrations of calcium, magnesium, potassium, rubidium, and strontium in human milk were associated with impaired infant weight-for-age score (WAZ), length-for-age score (LAZ), and head circumference-for-age score (HCAZ) [] whereas milk magnesium in early lactation (5-46 days) was negatively associated with linear growth velocity in breastfed infants younger than 6 mo []. Milk concentrations of zinc for its part has been described as fundamental for infant growth, development, and cell differentiation [], as well as in the metabolism of macronutrients and the synthesis of hormones involved in bone growth and metabolism []. Therefore, while there is evidence that minerals could play an important role in infant growth, more research is needed to characterize their association with other milk components, including the microorganisms found in human milk - the milk microbiome []. Indeed, evidence from the gut microbiome indicates several associations between gut microbial composition and infant growth. For example, healthy growth in the first 6 months is associated with greater and in the infant gut (16), taxa typically associated with breastfeeding, immunomodulatory characteristics and polysaccharide and oligosaccharide metabolism [, ]. Data are more limited in milk, but a recent cross-sectional study showed that a higher prevalence of and species in the milk microbiome positively correlated with infant head circumference, particularly during established lactation []. Another cross-sectional study led by the same group reported that the milk microbiome of mildly stunted infants (LAZ < 1.5 SD) had more and in early lactation, and and in established lactation. In contrast, non-stunted infants (LAZ ≥ 1.5 SD) had more and in early lactation, and in established lactation [].