Clinical efficacy of single-port transscrotal laparoscopic orchiopexy combined with hernia needle for palpable undescended testes in children.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder typically characterized by a progressive onset of motor symptoms, including rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability and resting tremor. Moreover, patients suffer from a range of non-motor impairments, particularly cognitive decline. This factor might result in Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD) in a subset of patients. According to a recent meta-analysis, approximately one-quarter of PD patients are likely to be diagnosed with PDD. However, reported PDD rate estimates vary widely, ranging from 14% up to 55%, depending on the methodological criteria employed. Moreover, factors such as patients’ sex, age and disease duration appear to modulate the risk of cognitive decline and PDD. Despite the clinical relevance of PDD, its diagnosis remains complex. A milestone in research of PDD was the publication of diagnostic criteria established in 2007 by the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society (MDS). In these criteria, the MDS introduced a two-levelled system for PDD detection. Level I consists of brief cognitive assessments, while Level II involves comprehensive neuropsychological testing across cognitive domains.