Rehabilitation physical activity service systems for people with disabilities in Korea, the United States, Germany, and Japan: paradigm review and policy directions for Korea.

Violent victimization is linked to harmful outcomes in children. In addition to the potential permanent or long-lasting injuries, victimization can also have a cascading effect on other aspects of health: mental health problems (), internalizing and externalizing behaviors (; ; ), substance abuse problems (; ), and poor physical health () are associated with victimization in childhood and adolescence. Furthermore, childhood abuse is linked to an increased risk of victimization later in life (). Several factors may contribute to an increased risk of victimization at young age. First, in addition to the established association between an individual’s externalizing or violent behavior and related risk of victimization (), research has identified a link between parental criminality and a heightened risk of offspring victimization () and child maltreatment (). Furthermore, various parental correlates of crime have been linked to victimization. For instance, lower socioeconomic status is associated with increased risk of childhood violent victimization (), and risk of childhood maltreatment has been found to be elevated among children of parents with substance abuse problems (). Parental incarceration (PI) is associated with deleterious outcomes in children such as poorer health (), criminal behavior (; ; ; ), lower educational achievement (), and premature mortality (), but little is known about the relationship between PI and offspring violent victimization. Multiple theoretical perspectives might be invoked to account for this possible association. First, PI could cause negative strain (; ) or stigma (), which can be harmful for child development and lead to risky behaviors that might predispose to violent victimization (). Criminally active parents could also be violent toward the child or expose the child to other violent individuals and environments with heightened risk of victimization. It should also be noted that, especially in the Nordic context, PI is experienced by a highly selected group of children as incarceration is used as a last resort sanction for severe and/or repetitive criminal behavior. Hence, multiple social and behavioral risk factors for violence accumulate in the families of incarcerated individuals (). On this basis, children with PI are a particularly vulnerable population in relation to victimization. Current research on the link between PI and victimization has yielded somewhat mixed results, with one study suggesting that paternal incarceration predicts maternal neglect and physical aggression toward children, indicating a possible detrimental intra-familial spillover effect (). Conversely, another study linked PI to children’s elevated risk of childhood neglect, verbal abuse and witnessing violence, but not with elevated relative risk of physical victimization (). However, the study was based on a small sample.