A randomized controlled trial examining the effects of human models in e-cigarette advertisements and e-cigarette use among susceptible young adults.

To exhibit successful adaptive behavior, one must be able to concentrate on information that is relevant in a given context while remaining responsive to perturbing events so as not to overlook potentially important information. In a classroom setting, it is crucial for children to be able to focus on the teacher's instructions amidst potential distractions such as whispers or bird noises. The ability to filter out irrelevant information is a key prerequisite for effective learning in school-aged children. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has become one of the most prevalent disorders diagnosed among U.S. children and adolescents aged 3–17 years () and is characterized by core symptoms of age-inappropriate inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity (). Previous studies have shown that children with ADHD exhibit impaired auditory and visual attention across a range of attention tasks (). The neural mechanisms underlying attention deficits in children with ADHD have been extensively studied in the visual domain (). However, findings regarding auditory attention in children with ADHD remain inconsistent. Some researchers have suggested that children with ADHD may have deficits in auditory attention. For instance, reported that children with ADHD showed reduced auditory responses at 100 ms (Ta component) and an absence of the Nd component compared with typically developing (TD) children, indicating impaired early attentional allocation. observed the absence of the N2ac component, an electrophysiological marker of lateralized auditory attention toward target sounds, in children with ADHD, suggesting deficits in auditory spatial attention. In contrast, argued that children with ADHD may struggle with attentional engagement rather than attentional selection, as they showed similar levels of attentional modulation in phase locking and neural phase shifts. However, no published studies have explicitly examined the age-related pattern of auditory attention in children with ADHD. Previous research has shown that the development of brain structures and cognitive functions in children with ADHD differs from that in TD children (). Compared with TD children, children with ADHD exhibit significantly reduced gray and white matter volumes across widespread frontal, parietal, and occipital regions (; ). These interconnected cortical areas integrate information from lower-order sensory systems to generate higher-order percepts that guide attentional and behavioral control. Structural anomalies within this network have been implicated in the pathogenesis of ADHD (). In addition, previous studies have reported smaller volumes of the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, and caudate in individuals diagnosed with ADHD compared with healthy controls (; ; ). Dysfunction in these subcortical structures has been associated with hyperactivity symptoms (; ; ).