Crop health management for food and nutritional security and soil health.

Demographics are shifting globally, with a trend toward an aging population. Projections show that the number of adults 65 years and older will double to 1.5 billion by 2050. Meanwhile, those 80 years and older are expected to triple from 2019 to 2050, reaching 426 million []. Aging gradually impacts physiological systems, causing tissue breakdown, hormonal decline, inflammation imbalance, and a slower metabolism. These changes lead to decreases in nerve density, bone mass, muscle strength, and functional performance, which contribute to frailty and sarcopenia. About 10% of people aged 65 and older and 25–50% of those aged 85 and older are affected []. As a result, fall-related injuries account for 38.19% of hospitalizations and 84.6% of deaths among older adults, leading to reduced physical activity, difficulty with daily tasks, and a lower quality of life [, ]. In such circumstances, a physical exercise program is a crucial preventive measure to mitigate age-related decline and enhance function in these individuals. The benefits of exercise on physical function and performance are well established []. Randomized controlled trials showed that exercise improves risk factors for lifestyle-related diseases and premature death [–]. Observational studies indicate that physically active individuals have up to a 72% lower risk of premature all-cause mortality compared with inactive individuals [, ]. Current guidelines emphasize that physical activity is a “miracle cure” because it can prevent and help manage many diseases []. Commonly recommended exercise approaches include stretching, aerobic training, resistance strengthening, sensorimotor exercise, and endurance activities, which have been shown to improve physical fitness, reduce fall risk, and promote healthy aging [, ]. Older adults with poor mobility should perform exercise at least 3 times per week to strengthen major muscle groups, improve balance, and reduce the risk of falls. Those unable to exercise due to poor health should still engage in physical activity according to their abilities []. Various exercise interventions have been implemented among healthy and non-healthy older adults across different settings, including community environments, residential care homes, and private homes, with support from professionals or trained facilitators, yet their diversity often leads to inconsistent findings and difficulties in comparing outcomes across studies [, ]. However, cost-effective, evidence-based exercise should be integrated into healthcare to improve functional independence, prevent falls, and enhance older adults’ quality of life, with more prospective clinical trials needed to determine the most effective community-level programs [, ]. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate two cost-effective community-based multimodal exercise programs (CMEPs)—sensorimotor and strengthening for older adults. Sensorimotor exercise is widely recognized as a comprehensive form of balance training that focuses on correcting muscular imbalances, enhancing proprioceptive and somatosensory input, and optimizing motor control through adaptations in the central nervous system []. Older adults need to continuously develop these skills to effectively detect obstacles, process sensory information, and generate optimal motor responses during daily activities. The coordinated function of the sensorimotor, vestibular, and visual systems is essential for maintaining dynamic and static stability and balance, and for reducing fall risk. Evidence showed that sensorimotor exercises improve gait and postural control in individuals with Parkinson’s disease, enhance balance and proprioception in those with diabetes, and benefit healthy older adults by increasing physical activity level, functional performance, fall prevention, and quality of life [, , ]. Strengthening exercise also plays a crucial role in maintaining muscle mass, muscular strength, and functional capacity, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of frailty and sarcopenia. Progressive strengthening training has been shown to enhance neuromuscular function, improve balance, reduce fall risk, and support healthy aging by promoting greater independence and quality of life [, ].