Effects of online learning climate on students' engagement and wellbeing: the mediating role of teacher credibility and positive academic emotions.

Over the past several years, online learning has increasingly captured the attention of researchers. The global COVID-19 pandemic has additionally propelled the popularization and development of online education (; ). Compared with traditional learning methods, the advantages of online learning, such as flexible time and space options, on-demand access, and massive learning resources, can effectively meet the educational needs of lifelong education, blended learning, and personalized learning (; ). However, the spatial separation between teachers and students in online courses renders student engagement ambiguous and difficult to measure (). Furthermore, the absence of humanizing factors in technological environments may engender feelings of isolation among students (), resulting in diminished learning motivation, inadequate engagement levels, and lower completion rates in online learning contexts. Learning engagement (LEE) represents the positive and sustained psychological state demonstrated by learners throughout the learning process (). It serves as a vital indicator of online education quality and plays a important role in fostering active learning (; ). In addition, an increasing number of researchers are acknowledging that the aim of education should not only be to obtain a single cognitive outcome, but also focus on non-cognitive factors of students, such as developing wellbeing (WB) (). WB serves not only as a critical metric for assessing educational quality (), but also exhibits a strong correlation with students’ life quality, mental, and physical health (). Consequently, considering the significance of LEE and WB, this study seeks to investigate the impact of the online learning environment on students’ LEE and WB, while elucidating the underlying psychological mechanisms. From the perspective of social cognitive theory (SCT), environmental factors (e.g., learning climate and teacher factors) and personal factors (e.g., motivation, academic emotions, and self-efficacy) and the interactions between these factors affect individuals’ perceived behavior (e.g., LEE and WB) (; ; ; ; ; ). Online learning climate (OLC) involves associations and interactions among instructors, students, and courses (), serving as a critical determinant of online LEE, student WB, and instructional quality (; ). Understanding the underlying influence mechanism of OLC on LEE and WB offers significant theoretical insights and practical guidance for developing online learning environments that foster high levels of engagement and learner satisfaction. Teachers, as a vital aspect in learning environments, not only have a substantial impact on students’ performance but also contribute to students’ WB (; ). Teacher credibility (TEC), a critical attribute of teachers in the teaching and learning process, exerts a positive influence on learners’ motivation, satisfaction, and LEE (). Exploring the links between TEC, LEE, and WB holds substantial value for researchers and practitioners seeking to implement effective strategies to enhance learning outcomes and learner experience in online contexts (; ). Nevertheless, empirical research examining the association between TEC and WB remains notably scarce. Academic emotion refers to a variety of emotional experiences encountered by students within the learning and teaching process, including hope, pride, enjoyment, boredom, and anxiety etc. (). The generation of these emotions significantly influences students’ motivation, learning strategy use, academic performance, and overall academic achievement (; ). Existing literature indicates that positive academic emotions (PAE) contribute to LEE and WB (; ). However, the specific roles of TEC and PAE in mediating the impact of the OLC on students’ LEE and WB remain underexplored. To address existing research gaps, this study constructed a multiple mediator model aimed at exploring the effects of OLC, TEC, and PAE on LEE and WB, as well as the influencing mechanism from OLC to LEE and WB. This study contributes to implications for online education practice and the construction of online learning environments.