The role of board-certified psychiatric pharmacists in United States foster care: Opportunities to optimize psychotropic medication use.

A significant amount of interdisciplinary scholarship has found that neighborhood contexts matter for a broad range of child wellbeing outcomes. Growing up or living in impoverished, violent, resource poor, isolated or racially segregated communities can negatively impact child health and development (; ), cognitive functioning (; ), labor market success () and educational attainment (). In response to the sharp rise in imprisonment rates in the US, a parallel and similarly impactful body of work has emerged documenting the collateral consequences of mass incarceration for communities (), families () and children (). Currently, 1 in every 35 adults (7 million) in the US is either incarcerated, jailed, under probation or on parole (). If former prisoners (of which there are at least 5.2 million) are included in the estimates, the total US adult population that has ever been part of the correctional population rises to around 10% or 1 in 10 adult Americans (). Given the rise of mass incarceration alongside the local concentration of incarceration in predominantly urban, impoverished, minority neighborhoods (; ; ), increased attention to contextual effects of mass incarceration among communities has been highlighted as a growing social, economic and public health concern (; ; ; ). Beyond the well-researched deleterious individual-level effects of imprisonment on health, employment, political participation and family wellbeing (for a review, see ), recent research has begun to suggest that exposure to high-incarceration neighborhoods is associated with reductions in the mental and physical health of non-incarcerated adult residents (; ; ). This perspective considers the impacts of incarceration at multiple levels of context, allowing for an investigation of individual- and aggregate-level effects within the communities most at risk of experiencing high rates of incarceration and criminal justice involvement. At the individual level, studies have found familial (mainly paternal) incarceration to have deleterious effects on a variety of indicators of child wellbeing (; ; ). Additionally, evidence has shown that negative individual-level shocks have damaging spillover consequences, particularly for children in schools (; ). Similar to schools, spillover effects of incarceration may also transform the social structure of neighborhoods through exposure to stressful environments, increased policing, or reductions in human and social capital that often accompany the formerly incarcerated upon re-entry (; ; ). In light of residential segregation, spatial inequality in punishment and evidence of impacts on adult outcomes, there are likely to be cognitive, behavioral and physical health consequences for children living in high-incarceration communities.