Effects of aerobic exercise intervention on the association between brain functional connectivity and cognition among older adults.

According to the US Census Bureau (2020), over 2.4 million children are being raised by their custodial grandparents (CGPs), in homes with no parents present, in what are known as “custodial grandfamilies.” The most common reasons for CGPs assuming care of grandchildren include parental substance use, maltreatment, death, divorce, and incarceration () or migration (e.g., ). Although grandfamilies are culturally, financially, and structurally diverse (), one commonality is that they often are initiated due to parental impairment. Moreover, a considerable proportion of grandfamilies experience economic adversity and related stressors (Glaser et al., 2016). As a result, grandchildren (GC) in custodial grandfamilies often experience adverse childhood experiences, disrupted parent-child relationships, and are at increased risk for maladjustment (; ). Despite some commonalities among grandfamilies, there are individual differences in the adjustment of GC living in CGP’s homes. One important factor is the quality of the relationship between the GC and custodial grandmother (CGM), though this attachment relationship has received limited empirical attention. Thus, the first goal of the present study was to more clearly differentiate two types of adolescents’ attachment-related insecurity in regard to their relationships with their CGMs. The second goal was to examine associations of GC’s attachment-related insecurity to their CGM with their externalizing (EXT) and internalizing (INT) symptoms, both within two time different points and also across 9 months, when controlling for initial levels of the constructs. We also explored the possibility of bidirectional relations, such that adolescent GC’s maladjustment could predict their perceptions of their later attachment-related insecurity. As part of this goal, we examined whether length of CGM care moderated the strength of these relations. Despite GC’s histories of disrupted parent-child relationships and other adversity (), a construct related to quality of dyad relationships that seldom has been examined in the grandfamilies’ literature is children’s attachment to their CGPs. According to attachment theory, children develop a “working model” of themselves and others as a consequence of caregivers’ availability and responsiveness (). Attachment theorists have argued that a secure attachment helps children and adolescents to manage their distress because the caregiver provides a haven of safety for children when in need or when emotionally vulnerable. In addition, attachment figures in secure relationships provide a secure base so children have the emotional security to explore their external and internal worlds (; ). In contrast, when children see themselves as unworthy of love and support as a result of insecure attachment or disruptions in attachment (e.g., abandonment, abuse/neglect, etc.), children are believed to be unable to manage their emotions, do not trust others, and may develop behavior problems and difficulties with their wellbeing (Madrigal et al., 2016; ).