Working-memory effects of prefrontal tDCS across baseline cognitive-severity groups in schizophrenia: A secondary analysis of a randomized double-blind sham-controlled trial.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic neurodevelopmental condition that persists into adulthood in a substantial proportion of affected individuals and is associated with significant functional, psychological, and social impairment. In the United States, approximately 4-5% of adults meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD, and many experience persistent symptoms that interfere with occupational functioning, interpersonal relationships, and overall quality of life [,]. Adults with ADHD frequently experience co-occurring psychiatric symptoms and diagnoses, including anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders, although diagnostic overlap and misclassification may contribute to some observed associations [,]. These challenges may complicate long-term management and increase demand for mental health services. Evidence-based treatments for adult ADHD, including stimulant and non-stimulant pharmacotherapy and structured psychosocial interventions, are effective for many individuals []. However, treatment access, adherence, and satisfaction remain ongoing challenges. Barriers include limited availability of specialty providers, cost and insurance constraints, medication side effects, stigma-related-concerns, and variability in treatment response []. As a result, many adults with ADHD report unmet treatment needs and pursue additional or alternative strategies to manage symptoms and associated distress []. Complementary health approaches (CHAs), defined as non-mainstream practices used alongside conventional medical or mental health care, represent one such strategy []. CHAs encompass a broad range of modalities, including mind-body practices (e.g., meditation, yoga), manual therapies (e.g., chiropractic care, massage), biologically based approaches (e.g., dietary supplements, specialized diets), and spiritually-oriented practices []. In mental health populations, CHA use has been associated with efforts to address residual symptoms, reduce stress, enhance well-being, and increase involvement in treatment decisions [].