Motor cortex in levodopa-induced dyskinesia: Systems and molecular changes after sub-anesthetic ketamine treatment.

Since James Parkinson first detailed Parkinson’s disease (PD) in his book in 1817, neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) have gradually become known by public (Kulcsarova et al., 2024; ). NDDs are a type of neurological disease with progressive loss of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) or peripheral nervous system (PNS), resulting in cognitive and behavioral impairment in patients (Sharma et al., 2022). NDDs cover a wide range of disease types, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), PD, multiple sclerosis (MS), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). With the increasing global elderly population, the number of individuals affected by NDDs has increased significantly (Üremiş and Üremiş, 2025), placing an economic and medical burden on patients, families, and society. Created with Figdraw (www.figdraw.com, ID: SYITP0e1f0). AD: Alzheimer’s disease; ALS: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; APP: amyloid beta precursor protein; FDA: U.S. Food and Drug Administration; IFN-β: interferon-beta; MS: multiple sclerosis; PD: Parkinson’s disease; SNCA: synuclein alpha; SOD1: superoxide dismutase 1.