Artificial Intelligence for the Diagnosis and Management of Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Comprehensive Review With an Emphasis on Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Diseases.

The focus of the current study was to examine the activation of neural systems during adolescence that underlie intertemporal choice. Tasks involving intertemporal choice are those in which an individual makes a series of decisions between an immediately available reward, and a larger, but temporally delayed, reward. For example, an individual may be given a hypothetical choice between receiving $300 now or receiving $600 in 3 months time. Generally, in such intertemporal choice tasks, the future reward must be greater in objective value than the immediately available reward for it to be chosen. The term “delay discounting” reflects the fact that people discount the value of a future reward compared with an immediate reward. Furthermore, the longer an individual must wait for the delayed reward, the larger it must be to seem attractive compared with an immediate one (; ). In essence, a bird in the hand today is worth more to people than two birds in the hand at some point in the future. A number of factors influence the ability to delay reward. Traditionally, trait impulsivity was thought to be a major factor that influenced the degree to which an individual is likely to choose a delayed reward. Increased self-reported impulsivity as determined by a questionnaire (i.e., the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale—BIS10R) that measures the ability to act without thinking (motor impulsivity), to make decisions on the spur of the moment (cognitive impulsivity), and to fail to plan ahead (nonplanning impulsivity) has been found to be associated with a decreased ability to delay reward (). Difficulty in choosing delayed rewards and a preference for immediate rewards is characteristic of certain populations, such as individuals who abuse substances (for review, see ; ; ). From these findings and others, it has been suggested that an inability to delay a reward is both a contributor to and a consequence of drug use (see , for review).