The financial burden of cancer: A longitudinal analysis of out-of-pocket healthcare costs in Australia (2009-2021).

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) encompass a broad range of conditions that are not transmitted between individuals and are often chronic in nature. They include cardiovascular diseases, stroke, cancer, diabetes, chronic respiratory and digestive diseases, mental health conditions, musculoskeletal and autoimmune disorders, glaucoma, hearing loss, and numerous other conditions []. In 2021, NCDs accounted for 75% of all non-pandemic-related deaths worldwide. Cardiovascular diseases were responsible for the largest proportion, followed by cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes. NCDs frequently reduce quality of life through lasting functional impairment or disability, and many remain incurable []. Their consequences extend well beyond individual health. The chronic course of many NCDs and the costs associated with long-term treatment can expose patients and their households to catastrophic health expenditure, deepen poverty, and entrench social inequality []. These effects are compounded by systemic barriers, including poverty, distance from medical services, inadequate healthcare infrastructure, and limited access to care. Such barriers influence both the likelihood of developing an NCD and the prospects of receiving timely diagnosis and treatment. The disparities are particularly pronounced for deaths before the age of 70: 82% of premature NCD-related deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries []. NCDs are also critically important in childhood and adolescence. Mental health disorders are the most common NCDs among adolescents [], while several major behavioral risk factors for diseases manifesting later in life frequently emerge during these formative years. Risk factors include, among others, physical inactivity, unhealthy diets, tobacco use, and harmful alcohol consumption. Their effects may therefore be immediate or accumulate across the life course, shaping health well into adulthood.