Defining One Health: Environment versus ecosystem.

Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics play an increasingly important role across many areas of medicine and healthcare, offering the potential to improve treatment outcomes by tailoring therapies to individual genetic profiles. This is especially valuable in fields where treatment responses can vary widely between patients, and where a trial-and-error approach is still common (; ). However, challenges remain in translating genetic insights into clinical practice. These include the complexity of genetic influences on disease and drug response, limited representation of diverse populations in genetic research, and concerns related to the ethical, legal, and regulatory aspects of genetic testing. Despite these barriers, there are substantial opportunities to enhance treatment efficacy, reduce adverse drug reactions, and support the development of more precise, individualized therapies. Ongoing advances in genomic technologies, data analytics, and the integration of genetic data with other clinical and biological markers hold promise towards a more personalized, evidence-based approach to healthcare, also in the field of psychiatry (). The implementation of testing on pharmacogenetics in routine care is still evolving. Significant hurdles include the need for validated genetic markers, clear clinical guidelines, and greater awareness, endorsement by agencies, and the need for education among healthcare providers. Large-scale, multi-ethnic studies are essential to identify reliable genetic predictors of treatment response and to ensure that personalized medicine benefits all populations equitably.