Autism, Education, and Philosophy.

Androgens represent a crucial and diverse class of steroid hormones that play essential biological roles. They regulate human reproductive mechanisms alongside estrogens, maintain skeletal and protein homeostasis, and contribute to cognitive development []. Testosterone is predominantly synthesized in the Leydig cells of the testes, with minor contributions from the adrenal cortex and ovaries []. Its production is regulated by the hypothalamus-pituitary-testis (HPT) axis [,]. Testosterone has garnered significant research interest due to its vital physiological functions, high synthesis rate, and rapid metabolic turnover []. Maintaining physiological testosterone levels is crucial for human health. It promotes muscle development by enhancing protein synthesis while suppressing degradation. Sarcopenia has been associated with age-related declines in testosterone levels in men []. Furthermore, low serum testosterone in males can lead to diminished libido, impaired spermatogenesis, infertility, and reduced bone density [,]. Women with elevated androgen levels may experience acne, hirsutism, and vocal deepening []. Testosterone deficiency is also linked to chronic diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases [,]. Age is a primary factor in testosterone decline, with levels peaking during adolescence and early adulthood before progressively decreasing after 40 in men []. Approximately 2.4 million American men aged 40–69 exhibit suboptimal testosterone levels, and projections suggest that by 2025, around 6.5 million men aged 30–80 in the America will be affected by this condition []. Additional factors influencing testosterone levels include genetics, physical activity, adiposity, sleep quality, stress, alcohol, and diet. Food intake is a personal choice influenced by multiple factors, including health objectives, cultural and religious practices, lifestyle, and nutritional requirements. Common dietary patterns include the ketogenic diet, vegetarian diet, Mediterranean diet, and western diet. Dietary habits can be adjusted in daily life, unlike other factors that are difficult to modify. Given that different diets provide varying types and quantities of nutrients, specific dietary approaches may significantly affect testosterone levels-an often overlooked physiologically important relationship. Understanding how dietary structure influences testosterone and its underlying mechanisms can help mitigate risks associated with endogenic testosterone deficiency or excess, offering a potential strategy for regulating abnormal testosterone levels. In this review, we examine the effects of various dietary patterns on testosterone production and synthesize evidence from clinical trials and animal studies. Additionally, we discuss dietary recommendations and propose directions for future research.