The eHealth literacy and its sociodemographic determinants among adult inpatients in Web 3.0 context: a cross-sectional study.

Avian cognition has been the topic of extensive research in recent years, with an aim to uncover the mechanisms underpinning the exceptional cognitive skills of some bird species, that enable them to perform similarly to primates (e.g. Emery and Clayton ; Kabadayi et al. ; Lambert et al. ; Sulikowski ) or even outperform them in some tasks (e.g. Wright et al. ). Brain volume provides the structural architecture for complex computation (Pietschnig et al. ; Barron and Mourmourakis ). Specifically, larger executive regions are associated with lower metabolic costs when solving novel cognitive tasks (Jung and Haier ; Neubauer and Fink ). Several studies have linked brain size to performance in cognitive tasks (e.g. Sol et al. ; Deaner et al. ; Kabadayi et al. ; Audet et al. ). Although birds have a much smaller absolute brain size than primates, Olkowicz et al. () found that the number of neurons in the forebrain of songbirds and parrots is similar to that of primates, which could explain how birds’ performance can be comparable to primates in some cognitive tasks (reviewed in Herculano-Houzel ). Furthermore, both absolute and relative brain size were found to positively correlate with problem-solving skills across bird species (Kabadayi et al. ; Audet et al. ). Problem-solving ability is an important aspect of cognition and is often used as a measure for innovative ability. In problem-solving experiments, subjects usually have to interact with an apparatus and/or overcome a barrier to reach the reward, which could be either food or another resource (e.g. Keagy et al. ). To succeed in these tasks, animals have to innovate by either exhibiting new behaviours or using existing behaviours in a novel context (Reader and Laland ). In nature, problem-solving ability can allow animals to adjust to changing environments (Sol et al. ), for example, by finding new food sources or avoiding unfamiliar predators. Problem-solving ability can enable animals to inhabit various environments and survive even when resources are scarce, thus this ability could contribute to the fitness of the individual. For instance, Cauchard et al. (, ) found that problem solving performance of great tits () is correlated with reproductive success in the wild as solver pairs fledged more young compared to non-solvers (but see Grunst et al. ). Furthermore, solving speed positively correlated with clutch size, hatching success and fledgling number (Cauchard et al. , ). Cole et al. () found similar results in another population of great tits using a different setup. Another study found that male satin bowerbirds (), which succeeded in a problem-solving task had higher mating success (Keagy et al. ). Several studies have tested problem solving abilities of various animal taxa from leaf-cutter ants ( – Dussutour et al. ) to birds (Lambert et al. ) and mammals (Benson-Amram et al. ). Studying problem solving ability in different species can give us an insight into cognitive evolution and species-specific differences in cognitive abilities. Although there is a continuously growing body of research on avian cognition, studies most often focus on bird taxa known for their exceptional cognitive abilities, such as corvids and parrots and other taxa are rather underrepresented in comparison (Kaplan ; Ten Cate and Healy ). Passerines are a diverse group of birds inhabiting a wide range of habitats, making them highly adaptable, which suggests an important role for innovation and problem-solving skills. Furthermore, they often live in complex social groups or forage in large flocks, giving them the opportunity to acquire novel foraging techniques by watching conspecifics or heterospecifics. For instance, milk-bottle opening in great tits and blue tits () began with individual innovation and subsequently spread across Great Britain as naïve individuals acquired the technique through social learning (Fisher and Hinde ). Comparative studies in a wider variety of bird taxa are important to better understand the drivers of cognitive evolution, and passerines represent promising candidates for problem-solving tasks.