Leveraging pretrained vision transformers for classifying alcohol use disorder using raw resting-state EEG.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is characterized by repeated bouts of short-duration exercise (ranging from <60 s to approximately 8 min) performed at vigorous (70%–90% of maximal heart rate [MHR] or 14–16 on the Borg rating of perceived exertion [RPE] scale) to near-maximal intensities (≥90% MHR or ≥17 RPE), interspersed with periods of active (40%–70% MHR or RPE 8–13) or passive recovery lasting 1 min–5 min. Originally introduced in the mid-20th century to enhance athletic performance, HIIT has since evolved, with contemporary protocols designed for non-athletic populations emphasizing reduced time commitment while eliciting substantial physiological and psychological adaptations compared with moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) (; ). The Vasper training system (Vasper Systems, USA) is an innovative approach to exercise aimed at improving fitness and overall health. It combines elements of compression, cold therapy, and interval training. The term ‘Vasper’ stands for Vascular Performance, emphasizing its main focus on optimizing efficacy of blood vessels. The essence of the system is the use of specialized equipment, including the Vasper device and cooling cuffs. The Vasper is essentially an exercise bike or elliptical trainer equipped with pneumatic compression technology. One of the primary advantages of the Vasper training system is its effect on cardiovascular function. Metabolic disturbances—characterized by elevated plasma concentrations of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triacylglycerols (TAG), and total cholesterol (TC), alongside reduced levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C)—are well-established risk factors for the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) (; ; ). Among modifiable lifestyle factors, insufficient physical activity and excessive caloric intake play a critical role in the etiology of metabolic disorders () and CVD, which together remain leading causes of global mortality (; ). HIIT has been extensively investigated across a wide range of populations and settings. In healthy individuals, including children and adolescents, it has demonstrated beneficial effects on cardiovascular fitness, body composition, and metabolic health, both in controlled laboratory conditions and real-world environments such as school-based physical education programs (). In adult and older populations, HIIT has been shown to improve cardiovascular function, muscular strength, and overall functional capacity in both recreational and clinical contexts (). Moreover, HIIT has been widely implemented in clinical populations, including individuals with obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer survivors, resulting in significant improvements in various health-related outcomes (; ; ; ; ). Notably, current evidence suggests that HIIT can be safely performed by high-risk groups—such as patients with cancer, metabolic disorders, hypertension, and coronary artery disease (CAD)—and may contribute to sustained improvements in cardiovascular health. In addition, HIIT is commonly employed in athletic populations, where it effectively enhances key performance parameters, including aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, endurance, and recovery efficiency (). The combination of compression and interval training improves blood flow and stimulates the circulatory system (; ). Vasper training also significantly increases nitric oxide production, leading to improved blood flow and lower blood pressure while reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis (). Moreover, Vasper cooling technology plays a vital role in enhancing exercise performance and post-workout recovery. Despite the growing body of literature supporting the beneficial effects of HIIT on cardiovascular and metabolic outcomes, findings remain heterogeneous. While some studies have reported significant improvements in maximal oxygen uptake (VOmax), blood pressure, and lipid profiles (), others have demonstrated limited or no observable effects ().