PRAD-Hybrid CNN (PRADHC): A Deep Learning Model for Assisted Diagnosis of Prostate Cancer on MRI.

Over the past two decades, advances in gut microbiome research have profoundly reshaped food science, positioning diet–microbiota–host interactions at the forefront of nutritional innovation. Probiotics, classically defined as live microorganisms that confer health benefits when administered in adequate amounts, have been central to this transformation. However, growing evidence has revealed several limitations associated with probiotic use, including reduced viability, instability during processing and storage, interindividual variability in colonization, and potential safety concerns in vulnerable populations, prompting the search for alternative microbiome-derived strategies. Postbiotics represent a conceptual and technological transition from live microbial supplementation to molecule- and structure- driven bioactivity. The 2021 consensus definition issued by the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) formalized postbiotics as “preparations of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confer a health benefit on the host, thereby decoupling efficacy from microbial viability. In parallel, paraprobiotics have gained attention as biologically active entities despite lacking metabolic activity. Collectively, these concepts reflect a paradigm shift in food biochemistry in which probiotic effects are increasingly attributed to microbial metabolites and structural components rather than to microbial colonization per se. From a biochemical perspective, postbiotics encompass a diverse repertoire of microbially-derived compounds, including short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), organic acids, antimicrobial peptides, enzymes, exopolysaccharides (EPS), and cell wall constituents such as peptidoglycans and teichoic acids (TAs). These molecules interact with host signaling networks through multiple mechanisms, including activation of G-protein-coupled receptors, modulation of epithelial barrier integrity, and engagement of pattern recognition receptors on immune cells, thereby influencing inflammation, immune homeostasis, and metabolic regulation. Beyond their mechanistic relevance, postbiotics and paraprobiotics offer important technological advantages for food systems. Their intrinsic stability under thermal, acidic, and oxidative conditions facilitates their incorporation into a wide range of food matrices without reliance on cold chains or viability guarantees, while their non-viable nature improves safety profiles for applications in infant nutrition, clinical settings, and immunocompromised populations. The translational significance of postbiotics extends across both human and animal nutrition. In humans, postbiotic-enriched foods and supplements are increasingly investigated for supporting gut health, modulating immune responses, and improving metabolic function. In animal production systems, including poultry, livestock, and aquaculture, postbiotics have emerged as promising alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters, with reported improvements in gut morphology, immune competence, feed efficiency, and disease resistance. Despite the rapid growth of the literature, the postbiotic field remains characterized by conceptual fragmentation. Inconsistencies in terminology, heterogeneity in production and analytical methods, and limited standardization of dose metrics continue to hinder cross-study comparability and regulatory harmonization. Moreover, mechanistic resolution often lags behind empirical observations, reflecting the complexity of postbiotic compositions and their multi-target modes of action. Recent advances in metabolomics, proteomics, systems biology, and AI provide unprecedented opportunities to overcome these limitations. Integrated omics pipelines enable high-resolution characterization of postbiotic preparations, while network biology and machine learning (ML) models support predictive mapping of structure–function relationships and biomarker-driven personalization.