Clinical characteristics of pure menstrual migraine and menstrually-related migraine: a cross-sectional online questionnaire study.

Alcohol consumption is deeply embedded in cultural, religious, and social practices worldwide and remains a major public health concern. It is a leading behavioral risk factor affecting individuals across all demographic groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that there is no completely safe level of alcohol consumption in relation to cancer risk, given its psychoactive and dependence-producing properties and its association with a wide range of adverse health outcomes []. Globally, harmful alcohol use contributes substantially to morbidity and mortality, accounting for a significant proportion of the disease burden and imposing considerable social and economic costs []. The most recent WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health estimates that approximately 32.5% of the global population equating to 2.4 billion people currently consumes alcohol, with higher prevalence among men (39%) than women (25%) []. Alcohol-related causes account for 2.2% of deaths among females and 6.8% among males annually []. Global per capita consumption was estimated at 6.2 L of pure alcohol among individuals aged 15 years and above, with 26% attributed to unrecorded consumption []. While high-income countries such as the United States, Canada, and those in Western Europe report high prevalence of alcohol use, recent trends indicate a gradual decline attributable to effective policy interventions, increased public awareness, and stronger regulatory measures [–]. In contrast, many low- and middle-income countries are experiencing rising consumption, driven by rapid urbanization, economic transitions, and aggressive alcohol marketing []. In sub-Saharan Africa, alcohol consumption is characterized by significant variability across countries, with an average per capita consumption of 6.3 L; slightly below the global average yet frequently accompanied by hazardous drinking patterns such as binge drinking and consumption of unregulated local brews []. These patterns pose serious public health challenges, as alcohol is causally linked to over 200 disease conditions, including liver cirrhosis, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, mental health disorders, and infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV [, ]. Furthermore, alcohol contributes substantially to injuries, including road traffic accidents, violence, and suicide, particularly among younger populations []. It remains a leading risk factor for premature mortality, especially among individuals aged 20–39 years, accounting for approximately 13.5% of deaths in this age group [, ].