Dietary Interventions and Testosterone Levels in Obese Men: A Systematic Review Comparing the Mediterranean Diet, Ketogenic Diet, and Intermittent Fasting.

Postmenopausal women are particularly vulnerable to declines in muscle health owing to aging, estrogen deficiency, and lifestyle-related changes in physical activity and diet [,]. This decline is characterized by reductions in muscle mass, strength, and functional performance, increasing the risk of frailty, falls, and loss of independence in later life. Among these indicators, handgrip strength has emerged as a practical and sensitive marker of early functional decline and is widely used in contemporary assessments of sarcopenia [,,]. Muscle health in postmenopausal women should not be viewed as the result of exercise alone. In real-life settings, adaptation occurs within a broader physiological and behavioral context shaped by nutrient availability, metabolic regulation, daily routine, and long-term adherence [,]. However, many intervention studies still examine exercise as an isolated factor, with limited attention to the lifestyle conditions in which it is performed [,]. Given that muscle decline is influenced by multiple interacting processes, single-component interventions may not fully capture the complexity of the problem or reflect real-world conditions. This highlights the need for a more integrated lifestyle approach [,,]. Nordic walking (NW) is a suitable exercise anchor for such an approach. As a pole-assisted walking modality, NW engages both the upper and lower limbs, increases whole-body muscle activation, enhances postural control, and provides a moderate and sustainable cardiovascular stimulus with relatively low joint stress [,]. These features make it particularly appropriate for community-dwelling older women. Compared with conventional walking, NW introduces a broader neuromuscular stimulus through active pole propulsion and coordinated gait mechanics, although its role in preventing muscle decline in postmenopausal women remains insufficiently studied [,].