D-Fructose Exposure Impairs Neuronal Development in Mouse Neural Stem Cells.

Pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and functional materials all contain sulfur-containing molecules, which are crucial to organic synthesis (; ). Organosulfur compounds constitute 20% of FDA-approved drugs, with over 200 drugs containing C−S bonds used to treat HIV, insomnia, gastroesophageal reflux, diabetes, cancer, schizophrenia, and Parkinson’s disease (; ). Because aromatic thioethers are found in a wide range of synthetic and natural organic compounds, the formation of C-S bonds continues to be one of the most significant issues in organic synthesis () (). Thioethers, sulfones and thioesters play major roles in the biological processes, pharmaceuticals, and in the synthesis of organic products (; ). Selected FDA approved thioether, sulfones and thioesters containing drugs. Conventional approaches as nucleophilic substitution, thiol–halide reactions, or acid-mediated thio-etherification, lead to harsh reaction conditions, limited substrate scope, poor chem-oselectivity (; ). Transition metals play a crucial role in carbon–sulfur (C–S) bond formation by enabling efficient cross-coupling reactions under controlled conditions (). Most transition metal-catalyzed techniques now in use rely on costly and comparatively rare palladium-based catalysts, which necessitate standard ligand design for effective catalysis () Among them, palladium, nickel, copper, iron, and cobalt have been most widely studied, each showing distinct reactivity and selectivity profiles (). Pd uses Pd (0)/Pd(II) cycles with oxidative addition, trans-metalation, and reductive elimination, often via palladacycles for selective annulations/sulfenylation, offering high tolerance. Ni employs Ni(0)/Ni(II) or Ni(I)/Ni(III) for radical paths, enabling reactive, cost-effective couplings on hindered substrates. Cu relies on Cu(I)/Cu(III) or SET, coordinating sulfur sources for ligand-free, green syntheses with broad scope ().