Kinetically controlled shock-wave route to turbostratic boron-carbon-nitride nanosheets.

Growing evidence suggests that aerobic exercise improves cognition and reduces cognitive decline, as well as dementia risk (Dominguez et al., 2021; Iso-Markku et al., 2022). Exercise improves cognitive function in children, adults (Yao et al., 2024), adolescents (Polevoy et al., 2022), and the elderly (Xiong et al., 2021). Moreover, studies have shown that exercise attenuates cognitive impairment in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (Li et al., 2024), Parkinson’s disease (Xu et al., 2019), schizophrenia (Roell et al., 2024), and depression (Schuch and Stubbs, 2019). Animal studies also suggest that exercise improves fear conditioning, spatial memory, and exploratory memory in rodents (Nicolas et al., 2024; Xiao et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2024). Recent studies suggest that the underlying mechanisms involved in these processes include up-regulating the expression of neurotransmitters and growth factors, inducing neurogenesis, and reducing the expression of inflammatory cytokines to exert neuroprotective effects (Ding et al., 2006; El Hayek et al., 2019; Wang and Han, 2020; Kondo, 2023). 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), appears early in brain development and plays a critical role in regulating the maturation of neural systems, as well as functioning as a neurotransmitter in adult brains (Brummelte, 2017). In early life, 5-HT helps to shape pathways that contribute to learning, thinking, and stress reactivity. Moreover, 5-HT is associated with adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus (Higuchi and Arakawa, 2023). 5-HT has been extensively studied for its role in psycho-emotional manifestation, as well as cognition. In the hippocampus, the dentate gyrus (DG) is enriched with serotonergic fibers from 5-HT neurons originating in the raphe nucleus (Moore and Halaris, 1975; Oleskevich and Descarries, 1990). Therefore, the 5-HT system regulates the structure and neuronal plasticity of the DG, which is involved in cognition and emotional disorders (Zhao et al., 2008; Ghaheri et al., 2022). Additionally, it has been suggested that exercise increases the concentration of 5-HT in the hippocampus and raphe nuclei (Pietrelli et al., 2018), thereby regulating cognition and memory (Zhang et al., 2020). The 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptor (5-HT3R), the only ligand-gated cation channel in the 5-HT receptor family, is permeable to Na, Ca, and K (Sharp and Barnes, 2020). Evidence suggests that the 5-HT3R plays a role in cognitive function (Huang et al., 2021). A previous clinical study has shown that mutations in 5-HT3Rs are related to cognitive impairment (Thompson et al., 2006). 5-HT3Rs are expressed specifically in cholecystokinin/vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-containing interneurons (INs) in the hippocampus, where they regulate fast synaptic transmissions (Férézou et al., 2002; Du et al., 2024). In addition, the 5-HT3R is essential for exercise-induced hippocampal neurogenesis (Kondo et al., 2015). Antipsychotic medications, which antagonize 5-HT3R function, may therefore impede the promotion of hippocampal plasticity by exercise in patients with schizophrenia undergoing antipsychotic treatment (Rammes et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2018). However, the roles of 5-HT3Rs in exercise-induced memory improvement and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.