Pain in people with dementia is a significant contributor to increased professional caregiver burden: results of an observation study.

Cardiometabolic risk (CMR) refers to the coexistence of metabolic and cardiovascular abnormalities that collectively increase the risk of developing dyslipidemia, hypertension (HTN), metabolic syndrome (MetS), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) []. The burden of cardiometabolic disorders (CMDs) has increased substantially over recent decades and now represents a major global public health challenge [,,]. CVDs remain among the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide, and the prevalence of MetS is increasing across populations [,]. Underlying CMDs are multifactorial processes involving genetic, lifestyle, and metabolic factors, with chronic low-grade systemic inflammation and oxidative stress (OS) acting as central drivers of endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance (IR), lipid abnormalities, and vascular injury [,,,,]. In addition, elevated liver enzymes and impaired renal function are recognized indicators of metabolic dysfunction and systemic inflammation associated with adverse cardiometabolic outcomes [,]. Given the growing global burden and clinical consequences of CMDs, increasing attention has been directed toward nutritional and dietary interventions as complementary strategies to improve cardiometabolic health (CMH) [,,,,,,,,]. Among dietary micronutrients, magnesium (Mg) has emerged as an important factor because of its involvement in numerous physiological and biochemical processes related to CMH [,,,]. Mg is the fourth most prevalent mineral in the human body and participates as a cofactor in over 300 enzymatic reactions involved in glucose homeostasis, lipid metabolism, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, protein synthesis, vascular tone regulation, neuromuscular function, and maintenance of electrolyte balance [,,]. Dietary sources of Mg include nuts, legumes, whole grains, seeds, and green leafy vegetables []; however, inadequate Mg intake has become increasingly common because of poor dietary quality and widespread consumption of processed foods [,]. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of adults worldwide do not meet the recommended dietary intake of Mg [,]. Emerging evidence also suggests that Mg deficiency may contribute to IR, endothelial dysfunction, OS, chronic low-grade inflammation, and abnormal lipid metabolism, all of which are key mechanisms underlying CMDs [,,,,,]. It has been reported that low dietary or circulating Mg levels are related to increased risks of CVD, T2DM, MetS, and HTN [,,,,]. In addition, previous meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have suggested that Mg supplementation may improve several cardiometabolic parameters [,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,]. Multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses have assessed the effects of Mg supplementation on individual cardiometabolic parameters, including blood pressure (BP) [,,,,], lipid profiles [,,], glycemic parameters [,,,,], anthropometric indices [,], and inflammatory biomarkers [,,]. Despite the evidence provided by these studies, their findings are largely confined to single cardiometabolic domains and do not reflect the interconnected nature of cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRFs). Notably, no previous meta-analysis has comprehensively evaluated the integrated impacts of Mg supplementation across a broad spectrum of interconnected CMRFs, including liver and renal function biomarkers, lipid and glycemic profiles, inflammatory markers, and anthropometric indices, within a single analytical framework. These limitations, together with substantial between-study heterogeneity in participant characteristics, bioavailability and chemical formulation of Mg, supplementation dose, and intervention duration, which may affect supplementation efficacy, have contributed to the lack of consensus regarding the overall impact of Mg supplementation on CMH. Given that the effects of Mg supplementation may vary according to dosage, duration, and formulation, a comprehensive dose–response assessment is warranted. Therefore, the current systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of RCTs aimed to provide updated and methodologically rigorous evidence on the impacts of supplementation with Mg on major CMRFs.