Testicular organoid models in male reproductive toxicology: advances, applications, and future perspectives.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the most frequently diagnosed malignant neoplasms worldwide and constitutes a major cause of morbidity and high mortality in the general population. Global epidemiological data indicate that CRC is the second to third leading cause of cancer-related death and one of the most commonly diagnosed malignancies, with its incidence and clinical burden continuing to increase in parallel with population ageing and lifestyle changes []. CRC exhibits substantial clinical heterogeneity, and its radical treatment using oncologic surgery, despite advances in surgical techniques, remains associated with a high risk of perioperative and postoperative complications. These include surgical site infections, cardiopulmonary events, anastomotic healing failure, and the need for rehospitalization, which translate into prolonged hospital stays, deterioration in quality of life, and poorer long-term treatment outcomes []. A high incidence of postoperative complications following CRC surgery has been demonstrated in numerous cohort analyses and literature reviews, with frailty and comorbidities identified as significant predictors of adverse clinical outcomes in patients undergoing CRC resection []. Multimodal prehabilitation typically includes components of physical exercise and nutritional intervention and may be further expanded to incorporate psychological support, targeted functional interventions (e.g., respiratory training), and medical optimization (e.g., iron supplementation in the presence of anemia and smoking cessation) []. Compared with standard care and postoperative rehabilitation, evidence of moderate quality suggests that multimodal prehabilitation leads to improved postoperative functional recovery in many oncological patient populations [].