Genetic susceptibility of Alzheimer's disease associated with APOE polymorphism: systematic review and bibliometric study.

Environmental stress significantly constrains plant growth, crop productivity, and agricultural sustainability []. Soil salinity is a major limiting factor for sustainable agriculture, currently affecting approximately 33% of irrigated agricultural land, with projections suggesting that this figure may exceed 50% by 2050 []. Salt stress affects more than 6% of the total land area globally, with over 70 countries identified as highly salinized []. By restricting vegetative development, delaying fertilization, and impairing seed reproduction, salinity is considered among the most critical abiotic stresses affecting agricultural productivity in semi-arid and arid regions []. Salinity stress reduces crop production primarily through osmotic and ionic stress, which impair physiological, biochemical, and molecular functions []. Among the various developmental stages affected, seed germination and early seedling establishment are particularly sensitive to salinity-induced water limitation, as salt stress delays germination onset, reduces germination rate and uniformity, and ultimately compromises crop performance and yield [,]. Consequently, these early developmental stages are considered key reference points when defining plant salt tolerance, as illustrated in . Salinity stress adversely affects germination and growth parameters across a wide range of plant species [,,]. Increasing salinity reduces osmotic potential, thereby limiting water uptake, and simultaneously induces ion toxicity and oxidative stress []. To counteract oxidative damage, plants deploy enzymatic antioxidants—including catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase—as well as non-enzymatic compounds such as carotenoids, proline, α-tocopherol, and ascorbic acid []. Seed viability and germination performance are commonly assessed through a set of key indices—germination percentage (GP%), germination rate (GR), germination index (GI), mean daily germination (MDG), mean germination time (MGT), and germination energy (GE)—all of which are negatively affected by salinity stress [,,,,,,,,,,,,]. Conversely, biochar applied in combination with organic fertilizers has been shown to significantly improve germination rate and plant growth parameters, including plant height and biomass, in vegetable crops []. In agriculture, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach for improving plant stress tolerance and supporting sustainable farming. Nanoparticles (NPs; 1–100 nm) have demonstrated potential in mitigating the adverse effects of abiotic stresses, including salinity, by improving nutrient uptake, enhancing antioxidant defense, and promoting plant adaptations [,]. Nanobiochar (NBC) is a novel carbon-based nanostructured material derived from biochar (BC)—itself produced by pyrolyzing biomass under limited-oxygen conditions at 300–700 °C from a wide range of feedstocks including forest debris, agricultural residues, and vegetable waste [,]—and further modified through chemical treatment, ball milling, or gaseous activation to yield particles of nanoscale dimensions (10–100 nm) []. Compared to conventional BC, NBC exhibits a larger surface area, increased microporosity, enhanced ion-exchange capacity, and improved adsorption efficiency, all of which contribute to its superior priming effectiveness []. Moreover, the physicochemical characteristics of NBC can be tailored through selection of feedstock materials, modification methods, and processing conditions, enabling targeted physiological outcomes []. Collectively, NPs and NBC influence key hydrolytic enzymes—including α-amylase, protease, and acid phosphatase—thereby accelerating seed germination and seedling establishment under stress conditions [,,,].