Recalibrating evidence hierarchies in populous low- and middle-income countries: Opportunity cost, epistemic alignment, and the overproduction of systematic reviews.

Neuronal oscillation bands of event-related desynchronization (ERD) are observed during tendon vibration (VIB), reflecting sensorimotor processing without actual movement (; ). These oscillatory patterns resemble actual movement execution, confirming that vibration modulates cortical rhythms by creating a kinesthetic illusion (KI), which the brain interprets as real movement (; ). This occurs because VIB excites Ia afferents from the muscle spindles, which relay precise proprioceptive information regarding changes in muscle length to the brain (; ). Consequently, this creates a mismatch between false and actual stretch signals. To reconcile this, the brain generates KI, producing a vivid perception of movement despite the absence of actual movement (; ). Accordingly, KI induced by VIB recruits the associative sensorimotor cortical network () and can also be an alternative form of motor imagery. It is especially useful in cases of limitations in performing motor imagery in physiotherapy rehabilitation settings (). In addition, KI induced by VIB is associated with muscle responses from the antagonist muscles of the vibrated muscle, known as antagonist vibratory responses (AVRs) (; ). Previous studies vary in methodologies, using different VIB frequency ranges (e.g., 40, 60, 100 Hz) and stimulation patterns—ranging from single VIB on one muscle side to co-VIB on two muscle sides—while also incorporating different vision conditions where the vibrated arm is either visible or hidden from view. Approximately 70–80 Hz frequency for single VIB or co-VIB, frequency differences between two muscle sides in the absence of visual feedback condition, can induce sufficient observability of its effect (; ; ; ). Consequently, the degree of KI can vary, ranging from no illusion to a strong KI, depending on the VIB pattern and frequency, with corresponding activation differences in the sensorimotor and parietal cortical regions (; ). Neuronal oscillation plays a fundamental role in regulating brain function, and synchronization of its specific neuronal frequency bands’ activity reflects distinct cognitive processes. Neuronal oscillations in distinct frequency bands, the alpha-band (), beta-band (), and gamma-band (), are associated with specific neural functions: alpha rhythms regulate sensory inhibition by suppressing irrelevant or distracting sensory inputs; beta mediate motor planning, motor execution to reflect the maintenance of sensorimotor states, while gamma support higher order cognitive processes through sensory gating, which involves filtering relevant sensory inputs, and contribute to perceptual binding and conscious awareness (; ; ; ). Moreover, these specific neuronal oscillation bands can be impaired by brain-related diseases, each associated with characteristic functional impairments. For example, unbalanced alpha activity may contribute to sensory neglect, disrupted beta oscillations to motor dysfunction, and attenuated gamma synchrony to cognitive deficits. Therefore, these impairments influence motor recovery outcomes during rehabilitation, depending on individual requirements and the extent of their impairment (; ; ; ; ).