Beyond the mouse: organoids, spheroids, and organs-on-chips as the (inevitable) future of malaria research?

Periodontitis is a multifactorial inflammatory disease and one of the most prevalent diseases affecting humanity, with implications for both oral and systemic health. Severe periodontitis affects approximately 1 billion people worldwide, with a global age-standardized prevalence of 12.5% (95% CI: 10.53–14.49), positioning it among the leading causes of disability globally, making it one of the most prevalent chronic inflammatory diseases worldwide [–]. When all severity levels are considered, prevalence rises to 33–64% in adult populations of high-income nations [, ]. Beyond oral health implications, periodontitis demonstrates significant associations with systemic conditions including cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, respiratory diseases, and adverse pregnancy outcomes [–]. The landscape of periodontal diagnostics and classification underwent a paradigm shift with the 2017 World Workshop on the Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Conditions, jointly organized by the European Federation of Periodontology (EFP) and the American Academy of Periodontology (AAP) []. This landmark consensus replaced the previous distinction between chronic and aggressive periodontitis with a unified periodontitis category characterized by a multidimensional staging and grading system. Staging (I–IV) reflects disease severity and complexity based on clinical attachment loss, radiographic bone loss, tooth loss, and case complexity factors, while grading (A–C) provides supplemental information about disease progression rate and risk factors including smoking and diabetes [, ].